Sunday, December 13, 2009
Late 20th Century
Late 20th century: An end to relative isolation
Until the mid-20th century most of Yucatán's contact with the outside world was by sea; trade with the USA and Cuba, as well as Europe and other Caribbean islands, was more significant than that with the rest of Mexico. In the 1950s Yucatán was linked to the rest of Mexico by railway, followed by highway in the 1960s, ending the region's comparative isolation. Today Yucatán still demonstrates a unique culture from the rest of Mexico, including its own style of food.
Commercial jet airplanes began arriving in Mérida in the 1960s, and additional international airports were built first in Cozumel and then in the new planned resort community of Cancún in the 1980s, making tourism a major force in the economy of the Yucatán Peninsula.
The first Maya governor of Yucatán, Francisco Luna Kan, was elected in 1976.
Today, the Yucatán Peninsula is a major tourism destination, as well as home to one of the largest indigenous populations in Mexico, the Maya people.
Until the mid-20th century most of Yucatán's contact with the outside world was by sea; trade with the USA and Cuba, as well as Europe and other Caribbean islands, was more significant than that with the rest of Mexico. In the 1950s Yucatán was linked to the rest of Mexico by railway, followed by highway in the 1960s, ending the region's comparative isolation. Today Yucatán still demonstrates a unique culture from the rest of Mexico, including its own style of food.
Commercial jet airplanes began arriving in Mérida in the 1960s, and additional international airports were built first in Cozumel and then in the new planned resort community of Cancún in the 1980s, making tourism a major force in the economy of the Yucatán Peninsula.
The first Maya governor of Yucatán, Francisco Luna Kan, was elected in 1976.
Today, the Yucatán Peninsula is a major tourism destination, as well as home to one of the largest indigenous populations in Mexico, the Maya people.
Republic of Yucatan
Republic of Yucatán
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
República de Yucatán
Republic of Yucatan
←
1841–1848 →
Flag
Capital Mérida
Language(s) Spanish (de facto)
Religion Catholic and others
Government Republic
President
- 1840-1844 Santiago Méndez Ibarra
- 1844-1846 José Tiburcio López
- 1846-1847 Miguel Barbachano
- 1847-1847 Manuel Salas Barahona
- 1847-1848 Santiago Méndez Ibarra
- 1847-1853 Miguel Barbachano
History
- Independence March 16, 1841
- Disestablished July 14, 1848
Area
- 1841 139,426 km2 (53,833 sq mi)
Population
- 1841 est. 504,600
Density 3.6 /km2 (9.4 /sq mi)
Currency Mexican Peso ($)
The Republic of Yucatán (Spanish: República de Yucatán) was a sovereign nation in North America that existed from 1841 to 1848. It encompassed the present Mexican states of Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatán, which during the Spanish domination were the colonial Captaincy General of Yucatán, under New Spain, but separated from the Viceroyalty of Mexico.
In this period of autonomy, amongst the most important achievements of the people of Yucatan was the writing of one of the most advanced constitutions of its time. The Constitution of 1841 used terminology that still exists in current law, and makes mention of guarantees of individual religious freedom and legal protection. During this period, the Republic experienced a crisis caused by the Caste War, which forced the rulers of Yucatán to seek military aid from Mexico in exchange for the reinstatement of Yucatán to Mexico.
Contents
1 History
2 Colonial era and independence of Yucatán to Spain
3 First Republic of Yucatán and the federal pact with Mexico
4 Background of the Republic of Yucatán
4.1 Texas
4.2 Central America
4.3 Cultural conflict with Mexico
4.4 Federalists and centralists dispute for power in Mexico
5 Second Republic
5.1 Declaration of Independence
5.2 Invitation to Tabasco to form an independent Republic
5.3 Yucatecan Constitution of 1841
5.4 Santa Anna President Of Mexico
5.5 Violation of the Andrés Quintana Roo‘s Treaties
5.6 Armed invasion of the Peninsula
6 Temporary return to Mexico
7 Second period of separation
7.1 Mérida against Campeche and the U.S. invasion
7.2 Washington
8 The Caste War
9 Final Return to Mexico
10 Flag of Yucatán
11 Anthem of Yucatan
12 See also
13 References
History
Colonial era and independence of Yucatán to Spain
Main articles: Viceroyalty of New Spain and New Spain
Intendency of Yucatán
In the year 1617, Yucatán was considered a General Captaincy that depended on New Spain, but due to its geographical position enjoyed certain freedoms. During the Spanish Viceroyalty, the captaincy and the province of Yucatán covered the current states of Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Yucatán, and included the territories of northern Petén in Guatemala and today’s Belize. In 1786, the Spanish Crown implemented a system of mayors (Intendencias) and the territory's name was changed to Yucatán Intendance, retaining the previous territories. Due to its geographical remoteness from the center of New Spain, particularly from Mexico City, Yucatán was not affected militarily by the war of independence from Mexico, although it had a spirit of freedom in the Yucatecan illustrated. Lorenzo de Zavala, one of Sanjuanistas formed in 1820 the Confederation Patriótica within it there was a schism and were two groups: those who supported the government and the Spanish Constitution of Cadiz and the other led by Zavala were looking for absolute independence from Spain. Mariano Carrillo Albornoz, then governor, forcing Zavala and Manuel Garcia Sosa to be deputies of the Cortes and sent them to Madrid, while the other liberals were put in prison without Zavala realized. While this was happening in Yucatán was proclaimed the Plan of Iguala and Echeverri, Albornoz Carrillo's successor, proclaimed the independence of the peninsula and sent two representatives to negotiate the incorporation to Yucatan to the Mexican Empire. The incorporation of the Empire takes place November 2, 1821. Once declared the independence of the Mexican Empire, Agustin de Iturbide was named President of the Regency, because of its great popularity and prestige and the Interim Board gave full authority. The elections for the Constituent Congress took place in December 1821 and January 1822. There is no accurate record of how many deputies were elected, there are 126 figures, but as Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Chiapas and Yucatan, had acceded to the Plan of Iguala were given about 52 deputies. José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, the Mexican thinker, suggested the right of Agustín de Iturbide as emperor. On May 19, 1822 Valentín Gómez Farías presents a proposal signed by 42 deputies to proclaim the emperor, citing the extraordinary service deliverer. The masses also supported the nomination. Lorenzo de Zavala, a Republican and a liberal opposed and noted that the partisans of Iturbide were the clergy, the nobility of the country, mostly in the army and the people who did not see in it rather than the liberator. His coronation took place on July 21, 1822 at the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City.
First Republic of Yucatán and the federal pact with Mexico
The United Mexican States under Constitution of 1824
After Mexico was declared independent, a group of notable Yucatecan citizens began to hold meetings in the church of San Juan, located in Mérida, Yucatán, to discuss the news about the war of independence that took place in central Mexico. Since the promulgation of the Constitution of Cádiz in 1812, the group grew and joined with the founded by Don Vicente Velazquez, (chaplain of the church of San Juan), Manuel Solís Jiménez, Lorenzo de Zavala and Jose Matías Quintana, Father of Andrés Quintana Roo. That group would be known as the Sanjuanistas. In 1814 King Ferdinand VII abolished the constitution of Cádiz and those who gathered in the church of San Juan were persecuted and some of them captured. The "sanjuanistas" were caught were Lorenzo de Zavala, José Francisco Bates and José Matías Quintana. The condition of Yucatán was similar to that of the Captaincy General of Guatemala and joined the ephemeral empire of Iturbide to gain freedom from Spain. The Empire was being attacked by a warlord of Veracruz called Antonio López de Santa Anna, who favored the Republican banner. Agustín I was forced to abdicate and left the country. When the Mexican Empire was dissolved and formed the Republic, Yucatán decided to join the new pact Mexican and have a much more serious and less interested, joining the new Republic only if the new republic was a Federal Republic and the decisions of the center "not affect the happiness of the Yucatecan”. Lucas Alamán member of the triumvirate that ruled Mexico before electing the first president was surprised that Yucatan conditioned their union, and call them anarchists, Yucatan answer that only then and in that way will they join the federation and any other form. The first federal republic of Mexico (United Mexican States) covered the years 1824 to 1835 and Yucatán was part of that federation. On May 29, 1823 Yucatán joined to the Mexican Confederation as Federal Republic, born in that way the First Republic of Yucatán, as they appear in the decrees of Yucatecan Congress.
The term "Republic" applied to the territory of Yucatan, first appeared in the Constitution of Yucatán of 1825:
«Yucatán swears, recognizes and responds to the government of Mexico, if it is liberal and representative, but with the conditions below: 1a .- The Yucatan union is like federal republic, and not otherwise, and therefore entitled to form their particular constitution and the laws that it deems appropriate to your happiness ...».
In 1835 Mexico adopted a central government and the condition of Yucatan as Federal Republic disappeared and also disappeared the First Republic of Yucatán. This brought great disappointment to the people of the peninsula. Began to think about the possibility of a Second Republic, but independent of Mexico, without in any way belong to it (or a state, province, territory or federal republic).
Background of the Republic of Yucatán
Texas
See Republic of Texas and Texan Revolution
Central America
When New Spain won its independence from the Spanish Crown in 1821, it became the Mexican Empire, being crowned Emperor Agustin de Iturbide. Building on the momentum of liberation, some regions from Central America (United Provinces of Central America)were incorporated into the new Empire just to separate shortly afterwards. This was the case of Guatemala, although the region of Chiapas, which belonged to the Captaincy General of Guatemala elected in a referendum to join the Mexican territory in 1824.
Cultural conflict with Mexico
As today, Yucatan was a territory with a very different way of thinking than the rest of the country. Is attributed to several causes, as the pre-Hispanic past of both, Mexico heir of Aztec culture, Yucatan heir to the Mayan culture, Mexico conquered by Hernán Cortés, Yucatan by Francisco de Montejo.
Yucatán was always an area with more liberal ideas, was the first state of Mexico declared that religious freedom and defended federalism harder.
Federalists and centralists dispute for power in Mexico
The Mexican Constitution of 1824, was the result of the republican government that emerged after the Iturbide Empire, this constitution fully satisfied the ideals of Yucatecan because it defined the states as sovereign entities with power and self, meeting in the Mexican nation, the current form of government of Mexico. In Mexico there were two policies that will compete for the Mexican government at that time: The Federalists argued that the division of three branches and centralizing all authority focusing on President of the Republic. Federalists ruled in Mexico since the birth of the Republic until 1835, during this period Yucatan was joined as a federal republic with Mexico and self, this was a period of calm in relations between Mexico and Yucatan. In 1835 the centralists took power in Mexico and from Mexico City was appointed the governor of Yucatan. In addition, the central government ordered the peasants to fight the war against Texas, this caused economic damage to the Yucatan and indignant people. Yucatecan Federalists be lifted against the new Mexican government, centralist ideology now.
Second Republic
The Republic was divided in 5 districts.
Mexico at the end of a federation broke their pact with Yucatan, because they had violated the terms of incorporation of the peninsula to the Mexican confederation. Yucatecan Federalists endured the situation only five years, in Yucatán began to form a federal army of secretly trying to repel the centralists.
Declaration of Independence
The federal army of Yucatán commanded by Captain Santiago Imam took the city of Valladolid, and February 12, 1840 issued a report, which stated that federalism should be restored as a form of government to combat poverty in the country. The act required the reestablishment of the Mexican Constitution of 1824.
Six days later, in the presence of troops of the garrison of Mérida (Yucatán capital city) under the command of Anastasio Torrens, and a lot of supporters, was signed in the record which supports the movement of Valladolid and triumphantly proclaimed the independence of the Yucatecan territory, until the Mexican central government recognizes that Yucatan state was free and independent and reestablish the Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824. On June 6, 1840, the city of Campeche (then belonging to the Yucatan) surrendered to the Federalists after a military siege. The central government of Mexico declared war on the Yucatan. On March 16, 1841 at the first City Council meeting in Merida, a group of people broke into the room led by Miguel Barbachano Terrazo (future governor of Yucatán). Without violence and without arms asking the Town to make the request to Congress, calling for the independence of Yucatán. Accepting the City Council began the euphoria of the group and said that there was a thunderous applause and unanimous. Within the euphoria some members of the group lowered the Mexican flag, without considering the consequences, and fly a flag in its place was called Yucatecan. Officially a few days after the Mexican flag was removed from boats and buildings in favor of the Yucatecan flag. On October 1, 1841, the local Chamber of Deputies adopted the Act of Independence of the Yucatan Peninsula. The first article stated:
«The people of Yucatan, in the full exercise of its sovereignty is becoming free and independent republic of the Mexican nation...».
Invitation to Tabasco to form an independent Republic
On February 13, 1841, the state of Tabasco declared its separation from Mexico to protest the centralist regime introduced in the country and the sanctions imposed by the state by President Anastasio Bustamante. From Yucatan moved a commission headed by Justo Sierra, the authorities propose to Tabasco the creation of a republic independent of Mexico formed by the two entities. The proposal failed because Tabasco rejoined to Mexico on December 2, 1842 when President Antonio López de Santa Anna lifted the sanctions imposed against the state by Bustamante, and implemented the Federal Republic again.
Yucatecan Constitution of 1841
The Constitution of the Yucatan was a very new and modern for its time. Some of its innovations were:
Individual rights: fundamental rights of all citizens of the state either at home or abroad.
Declaring freedom of religion in article 79: "none to be molested for his religious views, and those who come to settle in the country, as their descendants, have secured him the public and private exercise of their respective religions." Although the state religion remained Catholic.
Established a polular jury in Article 69.
Suppressed civil or military in Article 73.
The most important innovation and that he inherited a Mexican laws and international was appeal of amparo (Action of legal protection) is enshrined in article eight and in Section I of Article 62.
Santa Anna President Of Mexico
Andrés Quintana Roo
While this was happening in Yucatan in Mexico city the government of President Anastasio Bustamante was so weakened by the continued armed uprisings of the time. There was a rebel warlord to be taken by the government of Mexico: Antonio López de Santa Anna. Santa Anna brought all rebels in Tacubaya and occupied the presidency in October 1841 and radicalized more the centralist position of his government. Yucatan did not support this movement, fulfilling the agreement not to obey the Mexican mandates until it had a Mexican federal government. Santa Anna, the new president, commissioned Andrés Quintana Roo, a native of Merida, to establish a dialogue with the Yucatecan authorities and Yucatecan Congress in order to return to Mexico. The Andrés Quintana Roo‘s commission worked and the treaties of 28 and 29 November 1841 were signed. In them, Yucatán retain their customs and tariff laws and the free entry of goods to ports of the Republic, among other benefits to Yucatan.
Violation of the Andrés Quintana Roo‘s Treaties
In Mexico City, site of the central government of Santa Anna, the treaties between Andrés Quintana Roo and Yucatan were ignored. The central governments required Yucatan join Mexico and fully accept the Plan of Tacubaya, Yucatan territory should be subject to all laws of Congress established by the dictator. It also required that Yucatán break all relations with Texas because Mexico was at war against the Texans. Attempts were made through several diplomatic channels, but all failed
Armed invasion of the Peninsula
In failing in their attempt to bring in the Yucatan, General Santa Anna sent military forces to the peninsula to hunt for the federalists. In August 1842 there was a Mexican military squadron on the coast of the island Carmen (now Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche) formed by four warships, commanded by Captain Thomas Marin, demanding the reinstatement of the Yucatan to Mexico. A few days later they took the town without encountering armed resistance.
Access between central Mexico and Yucatán was by boat because there were no land routes. Besides by the shape of the country, is much faster to get from Mexico City to Yucatan out of Veracruz by sea, as it traces a straight path, whilst by land it is much longer.
Santanna’s army was reinforced by four thousand men brought from Veracruz and moved to his next goal: Campeche, a city that was protected by thick walls, built during the colonial era, to defend themselves from pirate attacks. They took the city of Champoton (at the current state of Campeche), and after several failed attempts to take Campeche decided to go on the capital, Merida. Landed at the port of Telchac Puerto and took one by one Telchac Pueblo, Motul, Tixkokob and Tixpéhual.
The Mexican army arrived at the Pacabtún’s farm in the vicinity of Merida, where they learned that the Yucatan had already prepared the defense of Merida and had the reinforcement of eleven thousand Mayan Indians. On April 24, 1843 and the general Peña y Barragán (Mexican centralist), surrenders and agrees to withdraw its troops by sea to Tampico in the state of Tamaulipas.
Temporary return to Mexico
Santa Anna refused to recognize the independence of Yucatan to Mexico and banned the entry of ships under flags of Yucatán to Mexico, also prohibits the transit of Mexican ships to Yucatan. This overrides all trade with the mainland of Mexico. To break ties with the center of Mexico, Yucatan's economy was deeply affected. Yucatecan economy was very hurt and without trade with Mexico was a very difficult situation. Barbachano knowing that Santa Anna was defeated in the military by Yucatan, decided to negotiate with the central government. Yucatan put their conditions to the central government and conflict resolution found in the government of Santa Anna, who on December 5, 1843 signed some agreements that granted full autonomy to the Yucatan, but returned to Mexico with that exceptional. Had achieved a return to Mexico with exceptionally different from the rest of the states, resumed trade between ports Yucatecan and Mexican ports. Yucatan Republic retains its quality but under orders from Mexico. The territory of the Yucatan was a sovereign entity with the power to elect their rulers in their own territory, which did not occur in the rest of the states of Mexico. The situation be short, because the national government in February 1844 ruled that laws exceptional Yucatan were inappropriate and this generated great mistrust on the peninsula. The President José Joaquín de Herrera organized its government under a centralized system and review the agreements with Yucatán was that they were contrary to the organic bases of his government. In late 1845 the Mexican Congress reproachable Conventions December 1843, the Yucatecan knew that would abolish the exceptional nature of its union with Mexico.
Second period of separation
The attitude of the Mexican President Herrera led the January 1, 1846, the Departmental Assembly of Yucatán, Yucatán declared independence from Mexican territory once again. Yucatan had different conflicts, in addition to the conflict with Mexico, the interior was divided among the Yucatecan: those of Mérida and Campeche. Differences in future divide Yucatan in two different states. On one side were the Mérida partisans led by Miguel Barbachano, on the other hand supporters of Campeche, whose leader was Santiago Méndez. To this is added a third conflict that was the pressure that local government did to the Indians: being the cannon fodder in the war against Mexico and the excessive taxes they paid.
Mérida against Campeche and the U.S. invasion
On September 25, 1846 the Mexican government repealed the laws of February 21 and recognized the 1843 treaty between Mexico and Yucatan, the 1824 Mexican Constitution was restored and returned to the country as a federalist. In Merida the news was received with pleasure and willing to return to the Mexican federation on November 2, 1846. Campeche's reaction was immediate and his council was against the return, claiming that Mexico was in conflict with United States.
The rivalry between warlords Méndez (Campeche faction) and Barbachano (Merida faction) came to the point that in early 1847 Yucatan would have a government in Campeche and another government in Mérida.
The U.S. fleet took Ciudad del Carmen in October 1846 that affected the exports of Campeche. The hearty opted for neutrality in the war with the United States to regain control of their ports; Campeche then ruled against the government of Mérida (that agreed with Mexico to support the war against United States) on December 8, 1846, the hearty to the Indians used to take control of the peninsula spreading terror and consternation throughout the state. On January 21, 1847 the capital was moved to Campeche and make the government of the peninsula, led by Santiago Mendez.
Washington
The Campeche’s government of Yucatán sent a delegation to Washington D.C. to avoid blocking other ports on the peninsula. They said the neutral position of Yucatan in Mexico's war with United States, arguing that they hadn’t to support Mexico because of the injustices committed to them by the Mexican central government and that they trade with the Gulf of Mexico was crucial. Judge Jose Rovira was sent to Washington by the government with the task of achieving the cessation of the blockade of the ports, leading to the degree of annexation offer Yucatan to the United States.
The Caste War
Main article: Caste War of Yucatán
The Mayans were tired of the situation in which they lived and the July 30, 1847 they took up arms against the whites and mestizos . Tepich was where the rebellion broke of the Maya had to last more than 55 years, even if the problems that caused it would remain a concern until 1937. In 1848 the caste war had spread throughout the peninsula and it seemed that the Indians were able to exterminate white people and mestizos.
Taking advantage of the war experience they had acquired in the ongoing civil war in the state, the rebel movement was planned by Manuel Antonio Ay, chief of Chicimilá; chief of Tepich Cecilio Chi and Jacinto Pat, chief of Tihosuco.
First they were engaged in proselytizing among the natives of other peoples, and discovered in their maneuvers, Manuel Antonio Ay was apprehended, tried, sentenced to death and executed in the Plaza de Santa Ana in the city of Valladolid on July 26 1847.
In view of these developments, the other leaders of the rebellion anticipated the eruption. Cecilio Chi took Tepich, which killed all white neighbors, saving only one who went to Tihosuco aware of the fact. The government acted swiftly against the Indians, without any discrimination: seized and sacrificed chieftains of Motul, Nolo, Euán, Yaxkukul, Chicxulub, Acanceh and other sites, but populations of the South and East were falling into the hands of rebels, killing the white inhabitants and burned the villages. On February 21, 1848, after they had taken Peto, Valladolid, Izamal and other 200 villages, the Indians, led by Venancio Pec, attacked Bacalar (now in the state of Quintana Roo), killing most of its inhabitants. Only those who could escape fled into the darkness towards the British Honduras (Belize), and settled in the town of Corozal and in their neighborhoods, where still a large core of Mexican descent.
Santiago Mendez offered The Yucaten sovereignty in exchange for military assistance, the governor of the island of Cuba, the admiral of Jamaica, the ministers of Spain and England, but nobody responded to their pleas. Mendez's government could not control the situation and a committee in Washington made a formal offer to be annexed the Yucatan to United States. When President James Knox Polk was pleased with the idea and the Yucatan Bill passed the U.S. Congress, but was discarded by the Congress. As the war with Mexico was becoming more complicated for what is expected in the beginning, could not have another war with the indigenous of Yucatán.
The uprising was so great that the non- indigenous population of Yucatan was at risk of disappearing. It was only when the rebel leader Jacinto Pat, quartered Tzucacab put in a position to end the war: To be recognized as chief of all the indigenous peoples of the peninsula. That the Maya could do their plantings of corn in the barren land without payment and That would abolish all personal contribution of indigenous Finally, on April 19, 1848, when he only had the government of the Yucatan the city of Merida, some populations of the coast and the road to Campeche, representatives of the governor Miguel Barbachano and the chief Jacinto Pat, signed the Convention Tzucacab , which was abolished personal contributions, reducing to 3 real baptism of the right and 10 of the marriage; allowed the Indians to clear (burn) the mountains for their seed, not to pay lease, provided the creditors of their debts and returned all the guns they had seized.
Articles 5 and 6 of the Convention recognized that Barbachano and Pat would be governors for life, the first of the Spaniards and mestizos, and the other of indigenous. Cecilio Chi, holding the head of the East Mayan lands (now the state of Quintana Roo), competing for the total extermination of the whites and rejected the agreement. The government succeeded in recovering part of the Yucatan lost territory: the cities Izamal, Tunkás, Ticul, Tekax, Sotuta, Cantamayec and Yaxcabá well as Tihosuco, Calotmul and Valladolid, with the help of troops from Mexico. Marcelo Pat's death, the son of Jacinto, forced him to abandon the struggle. Caste war lasted until the twentieth century.
Final Return to Mexico
Mendez decided to return to the government of Yucatan to Miguel Barbachano for the crisis provoked by the Caste War, and he took office in April 1848. The first thing Barbachano did as governor was inform the government of Mexico, who resided in the city of Queretaro, the distressing situation of the war of castes and seek economic and military assistance. Mexican President José Joaquín Herrera, was welcomed to Barbachano, and July 14 of 1848 gave 150,000 pesos Yucatán (of 3 million that the U.S. gave to Mexico as payment for territory gained in the Mexican-American War), and sent arms and ammunition Yucatan. The Mexican Government sent the following message to Barbachano:
Mr. Governor, will be useless after exposure to me the wishes of the nation, the feelings of the representatives, and the conduct of the Government of Yucatan if I don’t extended for the purpose of convincing the intensity of interest in the fate of the excited state and the government decision to save. For all the current administration should not be remembered past misfortunes, but as a harsh lesson that we all have a duty to repair indicates both misfortune. The President sees no more than one in Yucatan and very interesting part of the Union, or its citizens more than our brothers handed over to the relentless fury of the wild.
The indigenous rebellion was put down in August 1848 (although this must not mean an end to the war-caste) and August 17 of that year, Barbachano ordered the resumption of a confederation of Mexico and the restoration of the 1825 Constitution of the Yucatan.
Flag of Yucatán
Main article: Flag of Yucatán
Flag of Yucatán
Rodolfo Menéndez de la Peña, historian, describes the flag of Yucatán.
«The flag of Yucatán is divided into two camps: on the left, a green, right, with three other divisions, red and white up and down in the middle. In the field of green canvas or banner highlighting five beautiful stars that symbolized the five departments that Yucatan was divided by a decree of November 30, 1840, namely: Merida, Izamal, Valladolid, Campeche and Tekax.».
The flag was hoisted on Yucatec March 16, 1841, is the only occasion to protest against the Santa Anna’s centralization of Mexico.
Note that the colors of the flag to the Yucatan are identical of the Mexican flag. This only points out the differences between the two republics that were formed in Mexican lands, The Republic Of Yucatan that used the colors of Mexican flag and the Republic of Texas that used the colors of the United States flag.
Anthem of Yucatan
This section aims to explain the current anthem of Yucatan taught the school has nothing to do with the Republic of Yucatán described in this article.
Yucatán was the first state of the Mexican Federation, which had its own anthem (Veracruz was the second). Although this is a hymn to the glories loa Mexican military and don’t speak about separation of Yucatan.
The original title of this piece was Patriotic Song, the letter was a poem by Manuel Solis Palomeque and is inspired by Mexico's victory over France in the war of intervention. Was recited for the first time on July 4, 1867, please note that this is twenty years after the events of the Second Republic of Yucatán, and more than forty years after the first Republic of Yucatán, the hymn is recited after the firing squad announced Maximilian of Habsburg. The event was chaired by Agustin O'Horán Escudero, Governor, for being sick then Governor General Manuel Cepeda Peraza.
The musician and composer José Jacinto Cuevas who was musicalized the stanzas, in the evening of September 15, 1867, were executed in the Plaza de Armas to celebrate the festivities of Independence Mexico Spanish domain. The anthem was sing by the tenor Ramón Gasque.
The original point of the song were made some changes, by Jose Garcia Montero, who according to the Encyclopedia points Yucatanense <>.
[edit]See also
Yucatan
Republic of Texas
Republic of the Rio Grande
Try BReferences
Diccionario Quintana Roo Enciclopedia Regional, Héctor Campillo Cuautli, Fernández Editores, México, 1988. (pp. 18-19)
Enciclopedia "Yucatán en el tiempo", TOMO III, 1998
Cordourier, Alfonso y otros, Historia y Geografía de Yucatán, EPSA, México 1997 ISBN 968-417-347-4
Miguel Barbachano al Exmo. Sr. Ministro de Relaciones de la República, Mérida, 17 de abril de 1848. Archivo General de la Nación, Gobernación, sin sección, vol. 356, exp. 5.
Electronic Sources
Cuarto de siglo de constiyucionalismo en Yucatán (1825-1850) Anuario Mexicano de Historia del Derecho
160 aniversario de la Bandera de Yucatán (www.yucatan.com.mx)
17 de agosto de 1848. - Yucatán se anexa nuevamente a la República Mexicana. (redescolar.ilce.edu.mx:2000)
La Historia de la República de Yucatán
"Todas las desgracias anteriores no deben recordarse"
Mapa de México 1847
Yucatán en el siglo XIX
Categories: Former countries in North America | Former republics | Short-lived states | States and territories established in 1841 | 1848 disestablishments
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
República de Yucatán
Republic of Yucatan
←
1841–1848 →
Flag
Capital Mérida
Language(s) Spanish (de facto)
Religion Catholic and others
Government Republic
President
- 1840-1844 Santiago Méndez Ibarra
- 1844-1846 José Tiburcio López
- 1846-1847 Miguel Barbachano
- 1847-1847 Manuel Salas Barahona
- 1847-1848 Santiago Méndez Ibarra
- 1847-1853 Miguel Barbachano
History
- Independence March 16, 1841
- Disestablished July 14, 1848
Area
- 1841 139,426 km2 (53,833 sq mi)
Population
- 1841 est. 504,600
Density 3.6 /km2 (9.4 /sq mi)
Currency Mexican Peso ($)
The Republic of Yucatán (Spanish: República de Yucatán) was a sovereign nation in North America that existed from 1841 to 1848. It encompassed the present Mexican states of Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatán, which during the Spanish domination were the colonial Captaincy General of Yucatán, under New Spain, but separated from the Viceroyalty of Mexico.
In this period of autonomy, amongst the most important achievements of the people of Yucatan was the writing of one of the most advanced constitutions of its time. The Constitution of 1841 used terminology that still exists in current law, and makes mention of guarantees of individual religious freedom and legal protection. During this period, the Republic experienced a crisis caused by the Caste War, which forced the rulers of Yucatán to seek military aid from Mexico in exchange for the reinstatement of Yucatán to Mexico.
Contents
1 History
2 Colonial era and independence of Yucatán to Spain
3 First Republic of Yucatán and the federal pact with Mexico
4 Background of the Republic of Yucatán
4.1 Texas
4.2 Central America
4.3 Cultural conflict with Mexico
4.4 Federalists and centralists dispute for power in Mexico
5 Second Republic
5.1 Declaration of Independence
5.2 Invitation to Tabasco to form an independent Republic
5.3 Yucatecan Constitution of 1841
5.4 Santa Anna President Of Mexico
5.5 Violation of the Andrés Quintana Roo‘s Treaties
5.6 Armed invasion of the Peninsula
6 Temporary return to Mexico
7 Second period of separation
7.1 Mérida against Campeche and the U.S. invasion
7.2 Washington
8 The Caste War
9 Final Return to Mexico
10 Flag of Yucatán
11 Anthem of Yucatan
12 See also
13 References
History
Colonial era and independence of Yucatán to Spain
Main articles: Viceroyalty of New Spain and New Spain
Intendency of Yucatán
In the year 1617, Yucatán was considered a General Captaincy that depended on New Spain, but due to its geographical position enjoyed certain freedoms. During the Spanish Viceroyalty, the captaincy and the province of Yucatán covered the current states of Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Yucatán, and included the territories of northern Petén in Guatemala and today’s Belize. In 1786, the Spanish Crown implemented a system of mayors (Intendencias) and the territory's name was changed to Yucatán Intendance, retaining the previous territories. Due to its geographical remoteness from the center of New Spain, particularly from Mexico City, Yucatán was not affected militarily by the war of independence from Mexico, although it had a spirit of freedom in the Yucatecan illustrated. Lorenzo de Zavala, one of Sanjuanistas formed in 1820 the Confederation Patriótica within it there was a schism and were two groups: those who supported the government and the Spanish Constitution of Cadiz and the other led by Zavala were looking for absolute independence from Spain. Mariano Carrillo Albornoz, then governor, forcing Zavala and Manuel Garcia Sosa to be deputies of the Cortes and sent them to Madrid, while the other liberals were put in prison without Zavala realized. While this was happening in Yucatán was proclaimed the Plan of Iguala and Echeverri, Albornoz Carrillo's successor, proclaimed the independence of the peninsula and sent two representatives to negotiate the incorporation to Yucatan to the Mexican Empire. The incorporation of the Empire takes place November 2, 1821. Once declared the independence of the Mexican Empire, Agustin de Iturbide was named President of the Regency, because of its great popularity and prestige and the Interim Board gave full authority. The elections for the Constituent Congress took place in December 1821 and January 1822. There is no accurate record of how many deputies were elected, there are 126 figures, but as Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Chiapas and Yucatan, had acceded to the Plan of Iguala were given about 52 deputies. José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, the Mexican thinker, suggested the right of Agustín de Iturbide as emperor. On May 19, 1822 Valentín Gómez Farías presents a proposal signed by 42 deputies to proclaim the emperor, citing the extraordinary service deliverer. The masses also supported the nomination. Lorenzo de Zavala, a Republican and a liberal opposed and noted that the partisans of Iturbide were the clergy, the nobility of the country, mostly in the army and the people who did not see in it rather than the liberator. His coronation took place on July 21, 1822 at the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City.
First Republic of Yucatán and the federal pact with Mexico
The United Mexican States under Constitution of 1824
After Mexico was declared independent, a group of notable Yucatecan citizens began to hold meetings in the church of San Juan, located in Mérida, Yucatán, to discuss the news about the war of independence that took place in central Mexico. Since the promulgation of the Constitution of Cádiz in 1812, the group grew and joined with the founded by Don Vicente Velazquez, (chaplain of the church of San Juan), Manuel Solís Jiménez, Lorenzo de Zavala and Jose Matías Quintana, Father of Andrés Quintana Roo. That group would be known as the Sanjuanistas. In 1814 King Ferdinand VII abolished the constitution of Cádiz and those who gathered in the church of San Juan were persecuted and some of them captured. The "sanjuanistas" were caught were Lorenzo de Zavala, José Francisco Bates and José Matías Quintana. The condition of Yucatán was similar to that of the Captaincy General of Guatemala and joined the ephemeral empire of Iturbide to gain freedom from Spain. The Empire was being attacked by a warlord of Veracruz called Antonio López de Santa Anna, who favored the Republican banner. Agustín I was forced to abdicate and left the country. When the Mexican Empire was dissolved and formed the Republic, Yucatán decided to join the new pact Mexican and have a much more serious and less interested, joining the new Republic only if the new republic was a Federal Republic and the decisions of the center "not affect the happiness of the Yucatecan”. Lucas Alamán member of the triumvirate that ruled Mexico before electing the first president was surprised that Yucatan conditioned their union, and call them anarchists, Yucatan answer that only then and in that way will they join the federation and any other form. The first federal republic of Mexico (United Mexican States) covered the years 1824 to 1835 and Yucatán was part of that federation. On May 29, 1823 Yucatán joined to the Mexican Confederation as Federal Republic, born in that way the First Republic of Yucatán, as they appear in the decrees of Yucatecan Congress.
The term "Republic" applied to the territory of Yucatan, first appeared in the Constitution of Yucatán of 1825:
«Yucatán swears, recognizes and responds to the government of Mexico, if it is liberal and representative, but with the conditions below: 1a .- The Yucatan union is like federal republic, and not otherwise, and therefore entitled to form their particular constitution and the laws that it deems appropriate to your happiness ...».
In 1835 Mexico adopted a central government and the condition of Yucatan as Federal Republic disappeared and also disappeared the First Republic of Yucatán. This brought great disappointment to the people of the peninsula. Began to think about the possibility of a Second Republic, but independent of Mexico, without in any way belong to it (or a state, province, territory or federal republic).
Background of the Republic of Yucatán
Texas
See Republic of Texas and Texan Revolution
Central America
When New Spain won its independence from the Spanish Crown in 1821, it became the Mexican Empire, being crowned Emperor Agustin de Iturbide. Building on the momentum of liberation, some regions from Central America (United Provinces of Central America)were incorporated into the new Empire just to separate shortly afterwards. This was the case of Guatemala, although the region of Chiapas, which belonged to the Captaincy General of Guatemala elected in a referendum to join the Mexican territory in 1824.
Cultural conflict with Mexico
As today, Yucatan was a territory with a very different way of thinking than the rest of the country. Is attributed to several causes, as the pre-Hispanic past of both, Mexico heir of Aztec culture, Yucatan heir to the Mayan culture, Mexico conquered by Hernán Cortés, Yucatan by Francisco de Montejo.
Yucatán was always an area with more liberal ideas, was the first state of Mexico declared that religious freedom and defended federalism harder.
Federalists and centralists dispute for power in Mexico
The Mexican Constitution of 1824, was the result of the republican government that emerged after the Iturbide Empire, this constitution fully satisfied the ideals of Yucatecan because it defined the states as sovereign entities with power and self, meeting in the Mexican nation, the current form of government of Mexico. In Mexico there were two policies that will compete for the Mexican government at that time: The Federalists argued that the division of three branches and centralizing all authority focusing on President of the Republic. Federalists ruled in Mexico since the birth of the Republic until 1835, during this period Yucatan was joined as a federal republic with Mexico and self, this was a period of calm in relations between Mexico and Yucatan. In 1835 the centralists took power in Mexico and from Mexico City was appointed the governor of Yucatan. In addition, the central government ordered the peasants to fight the war against Texas, this caused economic damage to the Yucatan and indignant people. Yucatecan Federalists be lifted against the new Mexican government, centralist ideology now.
Second Republic
The Republic was divided in 5 districts.
Mexico at the end of a federation broke their pact with Yucatan, because they had violated the terms of incorporation of the peninsula to the Mexican confederation. Yucatecan Federalists endured the situation only five years, in Yucatán began to form a federal army of secretly trying to repel the centralists.
Declaration of Independence
The federal army of Yucatán commanded by Captain Santiago Imam took the city of Valladolid, and February 12, 1840 issued a report, which stated that federalism should be restored as a form of government to combat poverty in the country. The act required the reestablishment of the Mexican Constitution of 1824.
Six days later, in the presence of troops of the garrison of Mérida (Yucatán capital city) under the command of Anastasio Torrens, and a lot of supporters, was signed in the record which supports the movement of Valladolid and triumphantly proclaimed the independence of the Yucatecan territory, until the Mexican central government recognizes that Yucatan state was free and independent and reestablish the Mexican Federal Constitution of 1824. On June 6, 1840, the city of Campeche (then belonging to the Yucatan) surrendered to the Federalists after a military siege. The central government of Mexico declared war on the Yucatan. On March 16, 1841 at the first City Council meeting in Merida, a group of people broke into the room led by Miguel Barbachano Terrazo (future governor of Yucatán). Without violence and without arms asking the Town to make the request to Congress, calling for the independence of Yucatán. Accepting the City Council began the euphoria of the group and said that there was a thunderous applause and unanimous. Within the euphoria some members of the group lowered the Mexican flag, without considering the consequences, and fly a flag in its place was called Yucatecan. Officially a few days after the Mexican flag was removed from boats and buildings in favor of the Yucatecan flag. On October 1, 1841, the local Chamber of Deputies adopted the Act of Independence of the Yucatan Peninsula. The first article stated:
«The people of Yucatan, in the full exercise of its sovereignty is becoming free and independent republic of the Mexican nation...».
Invitation to Tabasco to form an independent Republic
On February 13, 1841, the state of Tabasco declared its separation from Mexico to protest the centralist regime introduced in the country and the sanctions imposed by the state by President Anastasio Bustamante. From Yucatan moved a commission headed by Justo Sierra, the authorities propose to Tabasco the creation of a republic independent of Mexico formed by the two entities. The proposal failed because Tabasco rejoined to Mexico on December 2, 1842 when President Antonio López de Santa Anna lifted the sanctions imposed against the state by Bustamante, and implemented the Federal Republic again.
Yucatecan Constitution of 1841
The Constitution of the Yucatan was a very new and modern for its time. Some of its innovations were:
Individual rights: fundamental rights of all citizens of the state either at home or abroad.
Declaring freedom of religion in article 79: "none to be molested for his religious views, and those who come to settle in the country, as their descendants, have secured him the public and private exercise of their respective religions." Although the state religion remained Catholic.
Established a polular jury in Article 69.
Suppressed civil or military in Article 73.
The most important innovation and that he inherited a Mexican laws and international was appeal of amparo (Action of legal protection) is enshrined in article eight and in Section I of Article 62.
Santa Anna President Of Mexico
Andrés Quintana Roo
While this was happening in Yucatan in Mexico city the government of President Anastasio Bustamante was so weakened by the continued armed uprisings of the time. There was a rebel warlord to be taken by the government of Mexico: Antonio López de Santa Anna. Santa Anna brought all rebels in Tacubaya and occupied the presidency in October 1841 and radicalized more the centralist position of his government. Yucatan did not support this movement, fulfilling the agreement not to obey the Mexican mandates until it had a Mexican federal government. Santa Anna, the new president, commissioned Andrés Quintana Roo, a native of Merida, to establish a dialogue with the Yucatecan authorities and Yucatecan Congress in order to return to Mexico. The Andrés Quintana Roo‘s commission worked and the treaties of 28 and 29 November 1841 were signed. In them, Yucatán retain their customs and tariff laws and the free entry of goods to ports of the Republic, among other benefits to Yucatan.
Violation of the Andrés Quintana Roo‘s Treaties
In Mexico City, site of the central government of Santa Anna, the treaties between Andrés Quintana Roo and Yucatan were ignored. The central governments required Yucatan join Mexico and fully accept the Plan of Tacubaya, Yucatan territory should be subject to all laws of Congress established by the dictator. It also required that Yucatán break all relations with Texas because Mexico was at war against the Texans. Attempts were made through several diplomatic channels, but all failed
Armed invasion of the Peninsula
In failing in their attempt to bring in the Yucatan, General Santa Anna sent military forces to the peninsula to hunt for the federalists. In August 1842 there was a Mexican military squadron on the coast of the island Carmen (now Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche) formed by four warships, commanded by Captain Thomas Marin, demanding the reinstatement of the Yucatan to Mexico. A few days later they took the town without encountering armed resistance.
Access between central Mexico and Yucatán was by boat because there were no land routes. Besides by the shape of the country, is much faster to get from Mexico City to Yucatan out of Veracruz by sea, as it traces a straight path, whilst by land it is much longer.
Santanna’s army was reinforced by four thousand men brought from Veracruz and moved to his next goal: Campeche, a city that was protected by thick walls, built during the colonial era, to defend themselves from pirate attacks. They took the city of Champoton (at the current state of Campeche), and after several failed attempts to take Campeche decided to go on the capital, Merida. Landed at the port of Telchac Puerto and took one by one Telchac Pueblo, Motul, Tixkokob and Tixpéhual.
The Mexican army arrived at the Pacabtún’s farm in the vicinity of Merida, where they learned that the Yucatan had already prepared the defense of Merida and had the reinforcement of eleven thousand Mayan Indians. On April 24, 1843 and the general Peña y Barragán (Mexican centralist), surrenders and agrees to withdraw its troops by sea to Tampico in the state of Tamaulipas.
Temporary return to Mexico
Santa Anna refused to recognize the independence of Yucatan to Mexico and banned the entry of ships under flags of Yucatán to Mexico, also prohibits the transit of Mexican ships to Yucatan. This overrides all trade with the mainland of Mexico. To break ties with the center of Mexico, Yucatan's economy was deeply affected. Yucatecan economy was very hurt and without trade with Mexico was a very difficult situation. Barbachano knowing that Santa Anna was defeated in the military by Yucatan, decided to negotiate with the central government. Yucatan put their conditions to the central government and conflict resolution found in the government of Santa Anna, who on December 5, 1843 signed some agreements that granted full autonomy to the Yucatan, but returned to Mexico with that exceptional. Had achieved a return to Mexico with exceptionally different from the rest of the states, resumed trade between ports Yucatecan and Mexican ports. Yucatan Republic retains its quality but under orders from Mexico. The territory of the Yucatan was a sovereign entity with the power to elect their rulers in their own territory, which did not occur in the rest of the states of Mexico. The situation be short, because the national government in February 1844 ruled that laws exceptional Yucatan were inappropriate and this generated great mistrust on the peninsula. The President José Joaquín de Herrera organized its government under a centralized system and review the agreements with Yucatán was that they were contrary to the organic bases of his government. In late 1845 the Mexican Congress reproachable Conventions December 1843, the Yucatecan knew that would abolish the exceptional nature of its union with Mexico.
Second period of separation
The attitude of the Mexican President Herrera led the January 1, 1846, the Departmental Assembly of Yucatán, Yucatán declared independence from Mexican territory once again. Yucatan had different conflicts, in addition to the conflict with Mexico, the interior was divided among the Yucatecan: those of Mérida and Campeche. Differences in future divide Yucatan in two different states. On one side were the Mérida partisans led by Miguel Barbachano, on the other hand supporters of Campeche, whose leader was Santiago Méndez. To this is added a third conflict that was the pressure that local government did to the Indians: being the cannon fodder in the war against Mexico and the excessive taxes they paid.
Mérida against Campeche and the U.S. invasion
On September 25, 1846 the Mexican government repealed the laws of February 21 and recognized the 1843 treaty between Mexico and Yucatan, the 1824 Mexican Constitution was restored and returned to the country as a federalist. In Merida the news was received with pleasure and willing to return to the Mexican federation on November 2, 1846. Campeche's reaction was immediate and his council was against the return, claiming that Mexico was in conflict with United States.
The rivalry between warlords Méndez (Campeche faction) and Barbachano (Merida faction) came to the point that in early 1847 Yucatan would have a government in Campeche and another government in Mérida.
The U.S. fleet took Ciudad del Carmen in October 1846 that affected the exports of Campeche. The hearty opted for neutrality in the war with the United States to regain control of their ports; Campeche then ruled against the government of Mérida (that agreed with Mexico to support the war against United States) on December 8, 1846, the hearty to the Indians used to take control of the peninsula spreading terror and consternation throughout the state. On January 21, 1847 the capital was moved to Campeche and make the government of the peninsula, led by Santiago Mendez.
Washington
The Campeche’s government of Yucatán sent a delegation to Washington D.C. to avoid blocking other ports on the peninsula. They said the neutral position of Yucatan in Mexico's war with United States, arguing that they hadn’t to support Mexico because of the injustices committed to them by the Mexican central government and that they trade with the Gulf of Mexico was crucial. Judge Jose Rovira was sent to Washington by the government with the task of achieving the cessation of the blockade of the ports, leading to the degree of annexation offer Yucatan to the United States.
The Caste War
Main article: Caste War of Yucatán
The Mayans were tired of the situation in which they lived and the July 30, 1847 they took up arms against the whites and mestizos . Tepich was where the rebellion broke of the Maya had to last more than 55 years, even if the problems that caused it would remain a concern until 1937. In 1848 the caste war had spread throughout the peninsula and it seemed that the Indians were able to exterminate white people and mestizos.
Taking advantage of the war experience they had acquired in the ongoing civil war in the state, the rebel movement was planned by Manuel Antonio Ay, chief of Chicimilá; chief of Tepich Cecilio Chi and Jacinto Pat, chief of Tihosuco.
First they were engaged in proselytizing among the natives of other peoples, and discovered in their maneuvers, Manuel Antonio Ay was apprehended, tried, sentenced to death and executed in the Plaza de Santa Ana in the city of Valladolid on July 26 1847.
In view of these developments, the other leaders of the rebellion anticipated the eruption. Cecilio Chi took Tepich, which killed all white neighbors, saving only one who went to Tihosuco aware of the fact. The government acted swiftly against the Indians, without any discrimination: seized and sacrificed chieftains of Motul, Nolo, Euán, Yaxkukul, Chicxulub, Acanceh and other sites, but populations of the South and East were falling into the hands of rebels, killing the white inhabitants and burned the villages. On February 21, 1848, after they had taken Peto, Valladolid, Izamal and other 200 villages, the Indians, led by Venancio Pec, attacked Bacalar (now in the state of Quintana Roo), killing most of its inhabitants. Only those who could escape fled into the darkness towards the British Honduras (Belize), and settled in the town of Corozal and in their neighborhoods, where still a large core of Mexican descent.
Santiago Mendez offered The Yucaten sovereignty in exchange for military assistance, the governor of the island of Cuba, the admiral of Jamaica, the ministers of Spain and England, but nobody responded to their pleas. Mendez's government could not control the situation and a committee in Washington made a formal offer to be annexed the Yucatan to United States. When President James Knox Polk was pleased with the idea and the Yucatan Bill passed the U.S. Congress, but was discarded by the Congress. As the war with Mexico was becoming more complicated for what is expected in the beginning, could not have another war with the indigenous of Yucatán.
The uprising was so great that the non- indigenous population of Yucatan was at risk of disappearing. It was only when the rebel leader Jacinto Pat, quartered Tzucacab put in a position to end the war: To be recognized as chief of all the indigenous peoples of the peninsula. That the Maya could do their plantings of corn in the barren land without payment and That would abolish all personal contribution of indigenous Finally, on April 19, 1848, when he only had the government of the Yucatan the city of Merida, some populations of the coast and the road to Campeche, representatives of the governor Miguel Barbachano and the chief Jacinto Pat, signed the Convention Tzucacab , which was abolished personal contributions, reducing to 3 real baptism of the right and 10 of the marriage; allowed the Indians to clear (burn) the mountains for their seed, not to pay lease, provided the creditors of their debts and returned all the guns they had seized.
Articles 5 and 6 of the Convention recognized that Barbachano and Pat would be governors for life, the first of the Spaniards and mestizos, and the other of indigenous. Cecilio Chi, holding the head of the East Mayan lands (now the state of Quintana Roo), competing for the total extermination of the whites and rejected the agreement. The government succeeded in recovering part of the Yucatan lost territory: the cities Izamal, Tunkás, Ticul, Tekax, Sotuta, Cantamayec and Yaxcabá well as Tihosuco, Calotmul and Valladolid, with the help of troops from Mexico. Marcelo Pat's death, the son of Jacinto, forced him to abandon the struggle. Caste war lasted until the twentieth century.
Final Return to Mexico
Mendez decided to return to the government of Yucatan to Miguel Barbachano for the crisis provoked by the Caste War, and he took office in April 1848. The first thing Barbachano did as governor was inform the government of Mexico, who resided in the city of Queretaro, the distressing situation of the war of castes and seek economic and military assistance. Mexican President José Joaquín Herrera, was welcomed to Barbachano, and July 14 of 1848 gave 150,000 pesos Yucatán (of 3 million that the U.S. gave to Mexico as payment for territory gained in the Mexican-American War), and sent arms and ammunition Yucatan. The Mexican Government sent the following message to Barbachano:
Mr. Governor, will be useless after exposure to me the wishes of the nation, the feelings of the representatives, and the conduct of the Government of Yucatan if I don’t extended for the purpose of convincing the intensity of interest in the fate of the excited state and the government decision to save. For all the current administration should not be remembered past misfortunes, but as a harsh lesson that we all have a duty to repair indicates both misfortune. The President sees no more than one in Yucatan and very interesting part of the Union, or its citizens more than our brothers handed over to the relentless fury of the wild.
The indigenous rebellion was put down in August 1848 (although this must not mean an end to the war-caste) and August 17 of that year, Barbachano ordered the resumption of a confederation of Mexico and the restoration of the 1825 Constitution of the Yucatan.
Flag of Yucatán
Main article: Flag of Yucatán
Flag of Yucatán
Rodolfo Menéndez de la Peña, historian, describes the flag of Yucatán.
«The flag of Yucatán is divided into two camps: on the left, a green, right, with three other divisions, red and white up and down in the middle. In the field of green canvas or banner highlighting five beautiful stars that symbolized the five departments that Yucatan was divided by a decree of November 30, 1840, namely: Merida, Izamal, Valladolid, Campeche and Tekax.».
The flag was hoisted on Yucatec March 16, 1841, is the only occasion to protest against the Santa Anna’s centralization of Mexico.
Note that the colors of the flag to the Yucatan are identical of the Mexican flag. This only points out the differences between the two republics that were formed in Mexican lands, The Republic Of Yucatan that used the colors of Mexican flag and the Republic of Texas that used the colors of the United States flag.
Anthem of Yucatan
This section aims to explain the current anthem of Yucatan taught the school has nothing to do with the Republic of Yucatán described in this article.
Yucatán was the first state of the Mexican Federation, which had its own anthem (Veracruz was the second). Although this is a hymn to the glories loa Mexican military and don’t speak about separation of Yucatan.
The original title of this piece was Patriotic Song, the letter was a poem by Manuel Solis Palomeque and is inspired by Mexico's victory over France in the war of intervention. Was recited for the first time on July 4, 1867, please note that this is twenty years after the events of the Second Republic of Yucatán, and more than forty years after the first Republic of Yucatán, the hymn is recited after the firing squad announced Maximilian of Habsburg. The event was chaired by Agustin O'Horán Escudero, Governor, for being sick then Governor General Manuel Cepeda Peraza.
The musician and composer José Jacinto Cuevas who was musicalized the stanzas, in the evening of September 15, 1867, were executed in the Plaza de Armas to celebrate the festivities of Independence Mexico Spanish domain. The anthem was sing by the tenor Ramón Gasque.
The original point of the song were made some changes, by Jose Garcia Montero, who according to the Encyclopedia points Yucatanense <
[edit]See also
Yucatan
Republic of Texas
Republic of the Rio Grande
Try BReferences
Diccionario Quintana Roo Enciclopedia Regional, Héctor Campillo Cuautli, Fernández Editores, México, 1988. (pp. 18-19)
Enciclopedia "Yucatán en el tiempo", TOMO III, 1998
Cordourier, Alfonso y otros, Historia y Geografía de Yucatán, EPSA, México 1997 ISBN 968-417-347-4
Miguel Barbachano al Exmo. Sr. Ministro de Relaciones de la República, Mérida, 17 de abril de 1848. Archivo General de la Nación, Gobernación, sin sección, vol. 356, exp. 5.
Electronic Sources
Cuarto de siglo de constiyucionalismo en Yucatán (1825-1850) Anuario Mexicano de Historia del Derecho
160 aniversario de la Bandera de Yucatán (www.yucatan.com.mx)
17 de agosto de 1848. - Yucatán se anexa nuevamente a la República Mexicana. (redescolar.ilce.edu.mx:2000)
La Historia de la República de Yucatán
"Todas las desgracias anteriores no deben recordarse"
Mapa de México 1847
Yucatán en el siglo XIX
Categories: Former countries in North America | Former republics | Short-lived states | States and territories established in 1841 | 1848 disestablishments
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Caste War of the Yucatan
TALES FROM THE YUCATÁN
Caste War of the Yucatán
by Jeanine Kitchel
MEXICO WIKI
MEXICO FORUM
- From 1847 until the early 1900s, the Caste War of the Yucatán made it impossible for a light-skinned person to walk into the eastern Yucatán or the territory of Quintana Roo and come out alive. Only indigenous Maya could safely roam here; any Spanish or Mestizo would be killed on sight. What caused the fierceness of this Maya uprising which lasted over half a century?
No single element alone instigated the rebellion, but as in most revolutions, a long dominated underclass was finally pushed to its limit by an overbearing uberclass that had performed intolerable deeds. These included changing the status of public lands which the Maya used for farming, breaking contracts, and enforcing cruel and unfair work conditions on the local peasants. Added to this was the timing of Mexico's successful break with Spain, which led to numerous changes in the Yucatecan government, including arming the Maya to help fight the Mexican war against the United States in Texas. For the first time ever, the Maya were allowed to own guns.
As a bit of background, Spanish invaders battled 19 years to conquer the Maya in the Yucatán Peninsula. Unlike the Aztecs in central Mexico who succumbed to Cortez in less than two years, the Mayans were not easily overtaken. But by 1700, a once robust Maya population had fallen to 150,000 due to disease, displacement and famine. As peace reclaimed the area, however, the Yucatán Peninsula's combined population of Maya, Mestizo and Spanish ballooned to a whopping 580,000 by 1845. More people on Yucatán soil meant more food was needed, and thus began the battle for land.
The history of the caste war, not unlike Mexico's dramatic history, is complicated to say the least. After Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, the Yucatán, a former territory, joined the Mexican Union. But by 1839, the Yucatecan elites chafed under federal authority and revolted against the new government, severing ties to Mexico, and enlisting the services of the Maya, offering promises of land, along with freedom from taxes, according to Terry Rugeley, author of Yucatán's Mayan Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War.
The Yucatán generals armed the Maya, and with their help, the revolution was a success.
CHANGES
But a few years later, the new Yucatán government made sweeping changes, including the suppression of monasteries separating church and state, and adopting new land and property rights, which included a clause allowing former public lands to be cultivated and sold. Over the next seven years, Rugeley states, several hundred thousand acres of land once used by Mayan peasants was taken from them and transferred into the ownership of the colonial and church elite, who felt the uncultivated lands were barely used by the Maya. To the Maya, however, forest land was sacred and far from vacant, as it housed the deities of the wild places and the guardians of the corn, and to the Maya, corn was the divine food, Rugeley states.
So not only were ancient lands stolen from the Maya but the promise of deeded land for combat duty was reneged on and never awarded them. The elimination of church taxes, another pledge, was also ignored, leaving the Mayans embittered. By 1843, Yucatán had waffled again and rejoined the Mexican Union, but retained these newer land laws as well as division of church and state that had been set up during the interim government.
With the church on its own and receiving no state funding, the clergy imposed hefty fees, called obventions, on the indigenous Maya when performing marriages or baptisms. The Maya became easy targets for recouping the church's lost income.
At the same time, water rights protection was removed and cenotes (limestone sinkholes that served as reservoirs to the dry, often bleak landscape) which had supplied an area's water for centuries suddenly became private property. On a parched peninsula, things were changing rapidly.
ENTER HENEQUEN
With independence from Spain just two decades earlier, the Yucatán was reeling from loss of trade with Europe. As one-time key exporter for goods like cattle, timber, salt and cotton, it had been replaced as a trade partner by Argentina and Belize.
With the failure of old money-making exports, the Yucatán needed a new cash crop. Enter henequen, an agave plant, raised for fiber that could be manufactured into rope. An overseas market soon developed and in 1833, the first commercial henequen plantation was founded.
Local landowners slowly converted their rural farms to suit this new crop, named green gold, and as the adaptation took time, cattle and corn crops were not immediately affected, leaving the land issue status quo, and imposing no drastic changes to the Mayan lifestyle. But by 1845, henequen became the major export crop of the Yucatán, and a port city named Sisal was developed near Merida to handle all overseas shipments of the fiber.
Sugar cane, too, began its reign when other traditional crops and exports were phased out after Mexico's split with Spain. And with cane's lofty payback, a 700 percent annual profit guaranteed by the second year's production, this high maintenance crop became popular with the hacendados, or landowners, according to Nelson Reed, author of The Caste War of Yucatán. Two things were needed to expedite this new moneymaker: Land and labor.
Due to this, forest land became a coveted item and although it had been deemed "land owned by all" under Spanish rule, with a new Mexican government, this land could be cultivated and sold. The Mayans would be allowed to lease it back from the government, but then they would be subject to taxation on the land they used. Few Mayans had the resources to do this.
Regarding labor, at the time of Mexico's independence, the Maya were declared free, but hacendados decided that 'the custom of the land' would continue, meaning the Mayan would remain in servitude to his master. The ancient hacendados had grown accustomed to a class of native serfs; they came with the property and could not leave nor marry without the master's consent. And by creating a 'company store' debt system, the Maya could never repay the hacendado, meaning he would stay on indefinitely in serfdom. This well-suited the need for intensive labor in the sugar cane and henequen fields.
SOCIAL CHANGES
Great social changes were taking place on the Yucatán Peninsula. Prior to Mexico's secession from Spain, the Maya had been forbidden to serve in the army or to own military weapons. But with changing times and governments, Mayan numbers were needed to assure victory in whatever present battle was being fought, both on the peninsula and elsewhere.
Three times the Maya were recruited and armed with rifles and machetes, and the third time it backfired. In 1847, after hearing of the death by firing squad to one of their leaders, Maya troops marched on Valladolid , the most elitist and separatist city in Yucatán, and macheted 85 people, avenging old wrongs. Mutilated bodies were carried triumphantly through the streets. With this news, a wave of dread hit Merida, the economic axis of the peninsula, as it was sure to be the next staging ground for what was now becoming a race war.
"The Maya were recognizing their true enemy, the white man," Reed states in The Caste War of Yucatán. "There was a debt to be paid and it was paid with the machete -- for the robbery of their land, for imposed slavery, for whippings, for impiety to God and the forest, and for the severed ears of their grandfathers."
In retaliation for the Valladolid massacre, the Yucatecans descended on the ranch of one of the Maya leaders, raping a 12-year old Indio girl. With this affront, eight Maya tribes joined forces and drove the entire elite population of the Yucatán to Merida, burning towns and pillaging as they went. So fierce was the threat of slaughter, all non-Maya prepared to evacuate Merida and the peninsula, leaving both entirely in Maya hands.
But just as the Maya approached Merida, sure of victory, fate intervened when great clouds of winged ants appeared in the sky. With this first sign of coming rain, the Maya knew it was time to begin planting. They laid down their machetes and headed for home and their corn fields, in spite of pressure from their chiefs. Now it was time to plant corn. A thing as simple and ancient as that.
In 1848, the Yucatecans staged a comeback, killed Mayan leaders and reunified. But as the Mayans harvested corn they had planted in hidden fields, they kept fighting. Hunkering down, they attacked Yucatecan villages, burned huts, murdered any white man they encountered, with no thought of giving up. They relied on guerilla war tactics and fought to preserve the only life they knew.
Through all this, they were pushed to the eastern and southern regions of Yucatán and Quintana Roo, as far south as Bacalar. Mexico slowly gained control over the Yucatán, but the rebels held firmly onto Quintana Roo, using the pueblo of Chan Santa Cruz (present day Felipe Carrillo Puerto) as their base.
CHICLEROS
Eventually a peace treaty was signed, but the Chan Santa Cruz Indians still remained hostile. Although the caste war officially ended in 1855, more or less from lack of interest by those in power in Merida, the struggle which had killed 247,000 would continue well into the 20th century, and involve a bizarre cult named The Speaking Cross, organized by the Chan Santa Cruz Indians who were to remain hostile for decades. Only when the chicle boom hit Quintana Roo in 1915 did their hostility weaken. The Wrigley Company sent in chicleros, chicle collectors, to gather the resin from the sapodilla tree which was used for chewing gum.
At first the chicleros were killed by the Chan Santa Cruz, or robbed of their equipment. But in time, a new Mayan leader took over, General May, who recognized deals could be made with the chicle companies, and slowly an end came to the old system of killing any white man who walked into the territory. Progress was on the way, and in the depths of the forests of Quintana Roo, even the Chan Santa Cruz Indians heard the call.
When 1915 ushered in the Mexican Revolution, General Salvador Alvarado was sent from Mexico City to restore order to the Yucatán, Mexico's most prosperous state, due to the henequen boom.
That September, the final decree ending the caste war came, riding in on the coat tails of the Mexican Revolution. Topping his list of reforms, General Alvarado canceled all 'debt labor' which freed 60,000 Maya and their families, after 350 years of slavery. The Revolution had arrived, and with it, the caste war of the Yucatán ended after 60 years of revolt by a people who fought fiercely to preserve their way of life.
Caste War of the Yucatán
by Jeanine Kitchel
MEXICO WIKI
MEXICO FORUM
- From 1847 until the early 1900s, the Caste War of the Yucatán made it impossible for a light-skinned person to walk into the eastern Yucatán or the territory of Quintana Roo and come out alive. Only indigenous Maya could safely roam here; any Spanish or Mestizo would be killed on sight. What caused the fierceness of this Maya uprising which lasted over half a century?
No single element alone instigated the rebellion, but as in most revolutions, a long dominated underclass was finally pushed to its limit by an overbearing uberclass that had performed intolerable deeds. These included changing the status of public lands which the Maya used for farming, breaking contracts, and enforcing cruel and unfair work conditions on the local peasants. Added to this was the timing of Mexico's successful break with Spain, which led to numerous changes in the Yucatecan government, including arming the Maya to help fight the Mexican war against the United States in Texas. For the first time ever, the Maya were allowed to own guns.
As a bit of background, Spanish invaders battled 19 years to conquer the Maya in the Yucatán Peninsula. Unlike the Aztecs in central Mexico who succumbed to Cortez in less than two years, the Mayans were not easily overtaken. But by 1700, a once robust Maya population had fallen to 150,000 due to disease, displacement and famine. As peace reclaimed the area, however, the Yucatán Peninsula's combined population of Maya, Mestizo and Spanish ballooned to a whopping 580,000 by 1845. More people on Yucatán soil meant more food was needed, and thus began the battle for land.
The history of the caste war, not unlike Mexico's dramatic history, is complicated to say the least. After Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, the Yucatán, a former territory, joined the Mexican Union. But by 1839, the Yucatecan elites chafed under federal authority and revolted against the new government, severing ties to Mexico, and enlisting the services of the Maya, offering promises of land, along with freedom from taxes, according to Terry Rugeley, author of Yucatán's Mayan Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War.
The Yucatán generals armed the Maya, and with their help, the revolution was a success.
CHANGES
But a few years later, the new Yucatán government made sweeping changes, including the suppression of monasteries separating church and state, and adopting new land and property rights, which included a clause allowing former public lands to be cultivated and sold. Over the next seven years, Rugeley states, several hundred thousand acres of land once used by Mayan peasants was taken from them and transferred into the ownership of the colonial and church elite, who felt the uncultivated lands were barely used by the Maya. To the Maya, however, forest land was sacred and far from vacant, as it housed the deities of the wild places and the guardians of the corn, and to the Maya, corn was the divine food, Rugeley states.
So not only were ancient lands stolen from the Maya but the promise of deeded land for combat duty was reneged on and never awarded them. The elimination of church taxes, another pledge, was also ignored, leaving the Mayans embittered. By 1843, Yucatán had waffled again and rejoined the Mexican Union, but retained these newer land laws as well as division of church and state that had been set up during the interim government.
With the church on its own and receiving no state funding, the clergy imposed hefty fees, called obventions, on the indigenous Maya when performing marriages or baptisms. The Maya became easy targets for recouping the church's lost income.
At the same time, water rights protection was removed and cenotes (limestone sinkholes that served as reservoirs to the dry, often bleak landscape) which had supplied an area's water for centuries suddenly became private property. On a parched peninsula, things were changing rapidly.
ENTER HENEQUEN
With independence from Spain just two decades earlier, the Yucatán was reeling from loss of trade with Europe. As one-time key exporter for goods like cattle, timber, salt and cotton, it had been replaced as a trade partner by Argentina and Belize.
With the failure of old money-making exports, the Yucatán needed a new cash crop. Enter henequen, an agave plant, raised for fiber that could be manufactured into rope. An overseas market soon developed and in 1833, the first commercial henequen plantation was founded.
Local landowners slowly converted their rural farms to suit this new crop, named green gold, and as the adaptation took time, cattle and corn crops were not immediately affected, leaving the land issue status quo, and imposing no drastic changes to the Mayan lifestyle. But by 1845, henequen became the major export crop of the Yucatán, and a port city named Sisal was developed near Merida to handle all overseas shipments of the fiber.
Sugar cane, too, began its reign when other traditional crops and exports were phased out after Mexico's split with Spain. And with cane's lofty payback, a 700 percent annual profit guaranteed by the second year's production, this high maintenance crop became popular with the hacendados, or landowners, according to Nelson Reed, author of The Caste War of Yucatán. Two things were needed to expedite this new moneymaker: Land and labor.
Due to this, forest land became a coveted item and although it had been deemed "land owned by all" under Spanish rule, with a new Mexican government, this land could be cultivated and sold. The Mayans would be allowed to lease it back from the government, but then they would be subject to taxation on the land they used. Few Mayans had the resources to do this.
Regarding labor, at the time of Mexico's independence, the Maya were declared free, but hacendados decided that 'the custom of the land' would continue, meaning the Mayan would remain in servitude to his master. The ancient hacendados had grown accustomed to a class of native serfs; they came with the property and could not leave nor marry without the master's consent. And by creating a 'company store' debt system, the Maya could never repay the hacendado, meaning he would stay on indefinitely in serfdom. This well-suited the need for intensive labor in the sugar cane and henequen fields.
SOCIAL CHANGES
Great social changes were taking place on the Yucatán Peninsula. Prior to Mexico's secession from Spain, the Maya had been forbidden to serve in the army or to own military weapons. But with changing times and governments, Mayan numbers were needed to assure victory in whatever present battle was being fought, both on the peninsula and elsewhere.
Three times the Maya were recruited and armed with rifles and machetes, and the third time it backfired. In 1847, after hearing of the death by firing squad to one of their leaders, Maya troops marched on Valladolid , the most elitist and separatist city in Yucatán, and macheted 85 people, avenging old wrongs. Mutilated bodies were carried triumphantly through the streets. With this news, a wave of dread hit Merida, the economic axis of the peninsula, as it was sure to be the next staging ground for what was now becoming a race war.
"The Maya were recognizing their true enemy, the white man," Reed states in The Caste War of Yucatán. "There was a debt to be paid and it was paid with the machete -- for the robbery of their land, for imposed slavery, for whippings, for impiety to God and the forest, and for the severed ears of their grandfathers."
In retaliation for the Valladolid massacre, the Yucatecans descended on the ranch of one of the Maya leaders, raping a 12-year old Indio girl. With this affront, eight Maya tribes joined forces and drove the entire elite population of the Yucatán to Merida, burning towns and pillaging as they went. So fierce was the threat of slaughter, all non-Maya prepared to evacuate Merida and the peninsula, leaving both entirely in Maya hands.
But just as the Maya approached Merida, sure of victory, fate intervened when great clouds of winged ants appeared in the sky. With this first sign of coming rain, the Maya knew it was time to begin planting. They laid down their machetes and headed for home and their corn fields, in spite of pressure from their chiefs. Now it was time to plant corn. A thing as simple and ancient as that.
In 1848, the Yucatecans staged a comeback, killed Mayan leaders and reunified. But as the Mayans harvested corn they had planted in hidden fields, they kept fighting. Hunkering down, they attacked Yucatecan villages, burned huts, murdered any white man they encountered, with no thought of giving up. They relied on guerilla war tactics and fought to preserve the only life they knew.
Through all this, they were pushed to the eastern and southern regions of Yucatán and Quintana Roo, as far south as Bacalar. Mexico slowly gained control over the Yucatán, but the rebels held firmly onto Quintana Roo, using the pueblo of Chan Santa Cruz (present day Felipe Carrillo Puerto) as their base.
CHICLEROS
Eventually a peace treaty was signed, but the Chan Santa Cruz Indians still remained hostile. Although the caste war officially ended in 1855, more or less from lack of interest by those in power in Merida, the struggle which had killed 247,000 would continue well into the 20th century, and involve a bizarre cult named The Speaking Cross, organized by the Chan Santa Cruz Indians who were to remain hostile for decades. Only when the chicle boom hit Quintana Roo in 1915 did their hostility weaken. The Wrigley Company sent in chicleros, chicle collectors, to gather the resin from the sapodilla tree which was used for chewing gum.
At first the chicleros were killed by the Chan Santa Cruz, or robbed of their equipment. But in time, a new Mayan leader took over, General May, who recognized deals could be made with the chicle companies, and slowly an end came to the old system of killing any white man who walked into the territory. Progress was on the way, and in the depths of the forests of Quintana Roo, even the Chan Santa Cruz Indians heard the call.
When 1915 ushered in the Mexican Revolution, General Salvador Alvarado was sent from Mexico City to restore order to the Yucatán, Mexico's most prosperous state, due to the henequen boom.
That September, the final decree ending the caste war came, riding in on the coat tails of the Mexican Revolution. Topping his list of reforms, General Alvarado canceled all 'debt labor' which freed 60,000 Maya and their families, after 350 years of slavery. The Revolution had arrived, and with it, the caste war of the Yucatán ended after 60 years of revolt by a people who fought fiercely to preserve their way of life.
Caste War
Caste War of Yucatán
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Caste War of Yucatán (1847–1901) began with the revolt of native Maya people of Yucatán (Mexico) against the population of European descent (called Yucatecos) in political and economic control. A lengthy war ensued between the Yucateco forces in the north-west of the Yucatán and the independent Maya in the south-east. It officially ended with the occupation of the Maya capital of Chan Santa Cruz by the Mexican army in 1901, although skirmishes with villages and small settlements that refused to acknowledge Mexican control continued for over another decade.
Contents [hide]
1 Background to the war
2 The independent Maya communities
3 The gradual end of the war
4 See also
5 Further reading
6 External links
Background to the war
In Spanish colonial times, Yucatán (like most of New Spain) was under a legal caste system, with officials born in Spain at the top, the criollos of Spanish descent in the next level, followed by the mestizo population, then the native hidalgos, descendants of the Pre-Columbian nobility who had collaborated with the Spanish conquest of Yucatán, and at the bottom were the other native indios.
With independence there was much rhetoric of a new equality before the law, but little actually changed other than the Creoles taking over the role of the Spaniards at the top of the political pyramid.
The opening of the Caste War is traditionally thought to have been the execution of three Maya at Valladolid, Yucatán, for planning an uprising which may have been originally intended to be political rather than a race war. The War seemed rooted in the defense of communal lands against the expansion of private ownership, and as a reaction to the economic and political power and the cultural bigotry of the European Yucatecos.
The greatest success of the Maya revolt was reached in the spring of 1848, with the Europeans driven from most of the peninsula other than the walled cities of Campeche and Mérida and the south-west coast, with Yucatecan troops holding the road from Mérida to the port of Sisal. The Yucatecan governor Miguel Barbachano had prepared a decree for the evacuation of Mérida, but was apparently delayed in publishing it by the lack of suitable paper in the besieged capital. The decree became unnecessary when the republican troops suddenly broke the siege and took the offensive with major advances. The majority of the Maya troops, not realizing the unique strategic advantage of their situation, had left the lines to plant their crops, planning to return after planting. It is said that the appearance of flying ants swarming after heavy rains was the traditional signal to start planting for the Maya rebels, leading them, in this instance, to abandon the battle.
At that time Yucatán had considered itself an independent nation, but during the crisis of the revolt had offered sovereignty to any nation that would aid in defeating the Maya. Yucatán was officially reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848. European Yucateco forces rallied, aided by fresh guns, money, and troops from Mexico, and pushed back the Maya from more than half of the state.
In the 1850s a stalemate developed, with the Yucatecan government in control of the northwest, and the Maya in control of the southeast, with a sparsely populated jungle frontier in between.
In 1850, the Maya of the southeast were inspired to continue the struggle by the apparition of the "Talking Cross". This apparition, believed to be a way in which God communicated with the Maya, dictated that the War continue. Chan Santa Cruz (Small Holy Cross) became the religious and political center of the Maya resistance and the rebellion came to be infused with religious significance. Chan Santa Cruz also became the name of the largest of the independent Maya states, as well as the name of the capital town (now the city of Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo). The followers of the Cross were known as "Cruzob".
The government of Yucatán first declared the war over in 1855, but hopes for peace were premature. There were regular skirmishes, and occasional deadly major assaults into each other's territory, by both sides. The United Kingdom recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a "de facto" independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and British Honduras (now Belize).
Negotiations in 1883 led to a treaty signed on 11 January 1884 in Belize City by a Chan Santa Cruz general and the vice-Governor of Yucatán recognizing Mexican sovereignty over Chan Santa Cruz in exchange for Mexican recognition of Chan Santa Cruz leader Crescencio Poot as "Governor" of the "State" of Chan Santa Cruz, but the following year there was a coup d'état in Chan Santa Cruz, and the treaty was declared cancelled.
The independent Maya communities
The Chan Santa Cruz state, stretching from north of Tulum to the Belize border and a considerable distance inland, was the largest of the independent Maya communities of the era but not the only one. The Ixcanha Maya community had a population of some 1,000 people who refused the Cruzob's break with traditional Catholicism. In the years of stalemate, Ixcanha agreed to nominal recognition of Mexico in exchange for some guns to defend themselves from Cruzob raids and the promise that the Mexican government would leave them alone. As Chan Santa Cruz was more of a worry, the Mexicans let Ixcanha govern itself through 1894.
Another important group was the Icaiche Maya, in the jungles of the lower center of the peninsula, who in the 1860s battled against the Mexicans, the Cruzob, and made raids and invasions against British Honduras as well, under their leader Marcos Canul. Canul's forces occupied Corozal Town in 1870 and attacked Orange Walk Town on 1 September 1872. The British mounted a retaliatory raid, including in their weaponry incendiary rockets which set the houses of Icaiche on fire from a good distance away, to the awe of Icaiche's residents. Canul was deposed and the new Icaiche leaders promised respect and friendship with the British. They soon made an agreement with Mexico similar to that of Ixcanha.
The gradual end of the war
In 1893 the United Kingdom was enjoying good relations with Mexico's Porfirio Díaz administration, and British investment in Mexico had become of much greater economic importance than the trade between the Cruzob and Belize. The UK signed a treaty with Mexico recognizing Mexican sovereignty over the region, formalizing the border between Mexico and British Honduras, and closing their colony's border to trade with the Chan Santa Cruz "rebels". As Belize merchants were Chan Santa Cruz's main source of gunpowder, this was a serious blow for the independent Maya.
The Mexican army had twice before managed to fight their way to the town of Chan Santa Cruz in previous decades, but was driven back both times. In 1901 Mexican general Ignacio Bravo led his troops to the town to stay, occupying with a large force and over the next years subduing surrounding villages. Bravo telegraphed the news that the war was over on 5 May (the Cinco de Mayo) that year. While this is the date most frequently given for the end of the war, fighting continued, although on a smaller scale. With their capital lost, the Cruzob split into smaller groups, often hiding in small hamlets in the jungle, and their numbers were seriously lessened by the epidemics of measles and smallpox that came with General Bravo's troops.
The Chan Santa Cruz Maya, under the influence of the persistent Talking Cross Cult, remained actively hostile well into the Twentieth Century. For many years, any non-Maya who entered the jungles of what is now the Mexican state of Quintana Roo would have been killed. The combination of new economic factors such as the appearance of the Wrigley Company's chicle hunters and the political and social changes resulting from the Mexican Revolution eventually reduced the hatred and hostility. In one form or another, war and armed struggle had continued for more than 50 years and an estimated 40,000 - 50,000 people had died in the hostilities.
The war was officially declared over for the final time in September 1915 by General Salvador Alvarado. General Alvarado, sent by the revolutionary government in Mexico City to restore order in Yucatán, implemented reforms which more or less eliminated the conflicts that had been the cause of the wars.
Although the war had been declared over many times before in previous decades, records show that the last time the Mexican army considered it necessary to take by force one of the area's villages which had never recognized Mexican law was in April 1933, when five Maya and two Mexican soldiers died in the battle for the village of Dzula – the last skirmish of a conflict lasting over 85 years.
See also
Chan Santa Cruz
Justo Sierra O'Reilly
List of wars involving Mexico
Further reading
The Caste War of Yucatan by Nelson Reed, Stanford University Press, 1964
The Machete and the Cross: Campesino Rebellion in Yucatan by Don E. Dumond, University of Nebraska Press, 1997
Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War by Terry Rugeley, University of Texas Press, 1996
Xuxub Must Die: The Lost Histories of a Murder on the Yucatan by Paul Sullivan, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004
Maya Wars: Ethnographic Accounts from Nineteenth-Century Yucatan edited by Terry Rugeley, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001
External links
Tales From The Yucatan: The Caste War of the Yucatan
The Caste War, the Church of the Speaking Cross, and the Cruzob Maya - by Jeanine Kitchel
The Caste Wars of the Yucatan and Northern Belize
In Search of the Talking Cross of Chan Santa Cruz
Categories: 19th-century conflicts | 20th-century conflicts | 1847 in Mexico | 1901 in Mexico | Independent Mexico | Porfiriato | Rebellions in North America | Maya peoples | Military history of Mexico
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Caste War of Yucatán (1847–1901) began with the revolt of native Maya people of Yucatán (Mexico) against the population of European descent (called Yucatecos) in political and economic control. A lengthy war ensued between the Yucateco forces in the north-west of the Yucatán and the independent Maya in the south-east. It officially ended with the occupation of the Maya capital of Chan Santa Cruz by the Mexican army in 1901, although skirmishes with villages and small settlements that refused to acknowledge Mexican control continued for over another decade.
Contents [hide]
1 Background to the war
2 The independent Maya communities
3 The gradual end of the war
4 See also
5 Further reading
6 External links
Background to the war
In Spanish colonial times, Yucatán (like most of New Spain) was under a legal caste system, with officials born in Spain at the top, the criollos of Spanish descent in the next level, followed by the mestizo population, then the native hidalgos, descendants of the Pre-Columbian nobility who had collaborated with the Spanish conquest of Yucatán, and at the bottom were the other native indios.
With independence there was much rhetoric of a new equality before the law, but little actually changed other than the Creoles taking over the role of the Spaniards at the top of the political pyramid.
The opening of the Caste War is traditionally thought to have been the execution of three Maya at Valladolid, Yucatán, for planning an uprising which may have been originally intended to be political rather than a race war. The War seemed rooted in the defense of communal lands against the expansion of private ownership, and as a reaction to the economic and political power and the cultural bigotry of the European Yucatecos.
The greatest success of the Maya revolt was reached in the spring of 1848, with the Europeans driven from most of the peninsula other than the walled cities of Campeche and Mérida and the south-west coast, with Yucatecan troops holding the road from Mérida to the port of Sisal. The Yucatecan governor Miguel Barbachano had prepared a decree for the evacuation of Mérida, but was apparently delayed in publishing it by the lack of suitable paper in the besieged capital. The decree became unnecessary when the republican troops suddenly broke the siege and took the offensive with major advances. The majority of the Maya troops, not realizing the unique strategic advantage of their situation, had left the lines to plant their crops, planning to return after planting. It is said that the appearance of flying ants swarming after heavy rains was the traditional signal to start planting for the Maya rebels, leading them, in this instance, to abandon the battle.
At that time Yucatán had considered itself an independent nation, but during the crisis of the revolt had offered sovereignty to any nation that would aid in defeating the Maya. Yucatán was officially reunited with Mexico on 17 August 1848. European Yucateco forces rallied, aided by fresh guns, money, and troops from Mexico, and pushed back the Maya from more than half of the state.
In the 1850s a stalemate developed, with the Yucatecan government in control of the northwest, and the Maya in control of the southeast, with a sparsely populated jungle frontier in between.
In 1850, the Maya of the southeast were inspired to continue the struggle by the apparition of the "Talking Cross". This apparition, believed to be a way in which God communicated with the Maya, dictated that the War continue. Chan Santa Cruz (Small Holy Cross) became the religious and political center of the Maya resistance and the rebellion came to be infused with religious significance. Chan Santa Cruz also became the name of the largest of the independent Maya states, as well as the name of the capital town (now the city of Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo). The followers of the Cross were known as "Cruzob".
The government of Yucatán first declared the war over in 1855, but hopes for peace were premature. There were regular skirmishes, and occasional deadly major assaults into each other's territory, by both sides. The United Kingdom recognized the Chan Santa Cruz Maya as a "de facto" independent nation, in part because of the major trade between Chan Santa Cruz and British Honduras (now Belize).
Negotiations in 1883 led to a treaty signed on 11 January 1884 in Belize City by a Chan Santa Cruz general and the vice-Governor of Yucatán recognizing Mexican sovereignty over Chan Santa Cruz in exchange for Mexican recognition of Chan Santa Cruz leader Crescencio Poot as "Governor" of the "State" of Chan Santa Cruz, but the following year there was a coup d'état in Chan Santa Cruz, and the treaty was declared cancelled.
The independent Maya communities
The Chan Santa Cruz state, stretching from north of Tulum to the Belize border and a considerable distance inland, was the largest of the independent Maya communities of the era but not the only one. The Ixcanha Maya community had a population of some 1,000 people who refused the Cruzob's break with traditional Catholicism. In the years of stalemate, Ixcanha agreed to nominal recognition of Mexico in exchange for some guns to defend themselves from Cruzob raids and the promise that the Mexican government would leave them alone. As Chan Santa Cruz was more of a worry, the Mexicans let Ixcanha govern itself through 1894.
Another important group was the Icaiche Maya, in the jungles of the lower center of the peninsula, who in the 1860s battled against the Mexicans, the Cruzob, and made raids and invasions against British Honduras as well, under their leader Marcos Canul. Canul's forces occupied Corozal Town in 1870 and attacked Orange Walk Town on 1 September 1872. The British mounted a retaliatory raid, including in their weaponry incendiary rockets which set the houses of Icaiche on fire from a good distance away, to the awe of Icaiche's residents. Canul was deposed and the new Icaiche leaders promised respect and friendship with the British. They soon made an agreement with Mexico similar to that of Ixcanha.
The gradual end of the war
In 1893 the United Kingdom was enjoying good relations with Mexico's Porfirio Díaz administration, and British investment in Mexico had become of much greater economic importance than the trade between the Cruzob and Belize. The UK signed a treaty with Mexico recognizing Mexican sovereignty over the region, formalizing the border between Mexico and British Honduras, and closing their colony's border to trade with the Chan Santa Cruz "rebels". As Belize merchants were Chan Santa Cruz's main source of gunpowder, this was a serious blow for the independent Maya.
The Mexican army had twice before managed to fight their way to the town of Chan Santa Cruz in previous decades, but was driven back both times. In 1901 Mexican general Ignacio Bravo led his troops to the town to stay, occupying with a large force and over the next years subduing surrounding villages. Bravo telegraphed the news that the war was over on 5 May (the Cinco de Mayo) that year. While this is the date most frequently given for the end of the war, fighting continued, although on a smaller scale. With their capital lost, the Cruzob split into smaller groups, often hiding in small hamlets in the jungle, and their numbers were seriously lessened by the epidemics of measles and smallpox that came with General Bravo's troops.
The Chan Santa Cruz Maya, under the influence of the persistent Talking Cross Cult, remained actively hostile well into the Twentieth Century. For many years, any non-Maya who entered the jungles of what is now the Mexican state of Quintana Roo would have been killed. The combination of new economic factors such as the appearance of the Wrigley Company's chicle hunters and the political and social changes resulting from the Mexican Revolution eventually reduced the hatred and hostility. In one form or another, war and armed struggle had continued for more than 50 years and an estimated 40,000 - 50,000 people had died in the hostilities.
The war was officially declared over for the final time in September 1915 by General Salvador Alvarado. General Alvarado, sent by the revolutionary government in Mexico City to restore order in Yucatán, implemented reforms which more or less eliminated the conflicts that had been the cause of the wars.
Although the war had been declared over many times before in previous decades, records show that the last time the Mexican army considered it necessary to take by force one of the area's villages which had never recognized Mexican law was in April 1933, when five Maya and two Mexican soldiers died in the battle for the village of Dzula – the last skirmish of a conflict lasting over 85 years.
See also
Chan Santa Cruz
Justo Sierra O'Reilly
List of wars involving Mexico
Further reading
The Caste War of Yucatan by Nelson Reed, Stanford University Press, 1964
The Machete and the Cross: Campesino Rebellion in Yucatan by Don E. Dumond, University of Nebraska Press, 1997
Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War by Terry Rugeley, University of Texas Press, 1996
Xuxub Must Die: The Lost Histories of a Murder on the Yucatan by Paul Sullivan, University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004
Maya Wars: Ethnographic Accounts from Nineteenth-Century Yucatan edited by Terry Rugeley, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001
External links
Tales From The Yucatan: The Caste War of the Yucatan
The Caste War, the Church of the Speaking Cross, and the Cruzob Maya - by Jeanine Kitchel
The Caste Wars of the Yucatan and Northern Belize
In Search of the Talking Cross of Chan Santa Cruz
Categories: 19th-century conflicts | 20th-century conflicts | 1847 in Mexico | 1901 in Mexico | Independent Mexico | Porfiriato | Rebellions in North America | Maya peoples | Military history of Mexico
Spanish Conquest and Colonial Period
Spanish conquest of Yucatán
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of the series on
Spanish colonization of the Americas
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities, particularly in the northern and central Yucatán Peninsula but also involving the Maya polities of the Guatemalan highlands region. This episode in the conquest and colonization of the Americas began in the early 16th century, but would prove to be a more difficult and lengthier exercise in subjugation than the equivalent campaigns against the Aztec and Inca Empires. It would take some 170 years and the help of the Xiu Maya before the last recognized Maya stronghold fell, that of the Itza capital of Tayasal on Lake Petén Itzá, in 1697. However, except for the Petén region and the Guatemalan highlands, Spanish control over Yucatán itself was effectively in place by 1546.[1]
Unlike the campaigns against the Aztec and Inca states, the Maya had no single political center whose overthrow would hasten the end of collective resistance by the indigenous peoples.[2] Instead, the Maya were organized into a number of independent states, which the conquistador forces needed to subdue almost one by one, and many of these fiercely resisted the Spanish incursions.[3]
Particularly in the early stages, a prime motivating factor for the conquistadores was their interest in seizing great quantities of precious metals, such as gold and silver. Since the Maya lands were poor in these resources, they held comparatively little initial interest for the Spanish, who were attracted instead to central Mexico and Peru by promising reports of the greater rewards on offer there. However, with the prospects of new land grants and the acquisition of labour forces, it was not long until Spanish intentions turned to the Maya region, with the first concerted efforts to establish a presence commencing from the 1520s.
After Spanish dominion over the region was finally established, the Maya peoples themselves remained restive against Spanish rule, both under the colonial phase of New Spain and then under the newly-independent Mexican state. Maya discontent in Yucatán would later erupt into open revolt during the latter half of the 19th century, in the Caste War of Yucatán. The major portion of this conflict lasted over fifty years, during which much of the southeastern portion of the Peninsula was an effectively independent Maya state, Chan Santa Cruz. Complete suppression of the revolt was difficult to obtain, and skirmishes continued up into the 1930s (Rugeley 1996).
Maya civilization
Peoples · Languages · Society
Religion · Mythology · Human sacrifice
Architecture · Calendar
Textiles · Trade
Pre-Columbian Music · Writing
History
Classic Maya collapse
Spanish conquest of Yucatán
v • d • e
Contents
1 First encounters (1511)
2 Early expeditions (1517–19)
3 First attempted conquest (1527–28)
4 Second attempted conquest (1531–35)
5 Final conquests (1540–46)
6 The Itza of Petén
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
[edit]First encounters (1511)
The first known Spanish landing[4] on the Yucatán Peninsula was a product of misfortune, when in 1511 a small vessel bound for the island of Santo Domingo from Darién, Panama ran aground on some shoals in the Caribbean Sea, south of the island of Jamaica.[5] The ship's complement of fifteen men and two women set off in the ship's boat in an attempt to reach Cuba or one of the other colonies. However, the prevailing currents forced them westwards until, after approximately two weeks of drifting, they reached the eastern shoreline of the Peninsula, possibly in present-day Belize.[6] Captured by the local Maya, they were divided up among several of the chieftains[7] as slaves and a number were sacrificed and killed according to offeratory practices. Over the succeeding years their numbers dwindled further as others were lost to disease or exhaustion, until only two were left– Gerónimo de Aguilar who had escaped his former captor and found refuge with another Maya ruler, and Gonzalo Guerrero who had won some prestige among the Maya for his bravery and had now the standing of a ranking warrior and noble. These two would later have notable, but very different, roles to play in future conflicts between the Spanish and the Mesoamerican peoples– Aguilar would become Cortés's translator and advisor, with Guerrero instead electing to remain with the Maya and served as a tactician and warrior fighting with them against the Spanish.
These Spanish castaways had unknowingly brought with them an epidemic disease to the region, smallpox, which would kill many people over the next few years.
Early expeditions (1517–19)
The next contact was not until 1517 when Francisco Hernández de Córdoba sailed out from Cuba in search of slaves to replace the native Cubans who had been dying off in great numbers. The Spaniards were surprised to see stone cities along the coast of Yucatán. Córdoba landed at several towns; some greeted the Spanish with friendship and offered to trade goods with them (the Spaniards acquired a few pieces of gold ornaments this way), while other towns greeted him with hostility and shot arrows when the Spanish approached close to shore. The expedition returned to Cuba to report on the discovery of this new land. Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, ordered an expedition sent out with four ships and some 240 men[8] led by his nephew, Juan de Grijalva. The Grijalva expedition had similar mixed experiences with the native Maya as it sailed along the coasts of Yucatán for months. He was disappointed at gathering very little gold, but came back to Cuba with a tale that a rich empire was further to the west.
This prompted the Hernán Cortés expedition in 1519. Cortés spent some time at the island of Cozumel, tried with mixed results to convert the locals to Christianity, and heard stories of other bearded white men living in the area. He sent messengers to these reported castilianos, who turned out to be the survivors of the 1511 shipwreck, Aguilar and Guerrero. Aguilar petitioned his Maya chieftain to be allowed leave to join with his former countrymen, and he was released and made his way to Cortés's ships. According to Bernal Díaz, Aguilar relayed that before coming he had unsuccessfully attempted to convince Guerrero to leave as well. Guerrero declined on the basis that he was by now well-assimilated with the Maya culture, had a Maya wife and three children, and he was looked upon as a figure of rank within the Maya settlement of Chetumal where he lived.[9]
Aguilar, now quite fluent in Yucatec Maya as well as some other indigenous languages, would prove to be a valuable asset for Cortés as a translator, a skill of particular significance to the later conquest of the Aztec Empire which would be the end result of Cortés's expedition.[10]
Although Guerrero's later fate is somewhat uncertain, it appears that for some years he continued to fight alongside the Maya forces against Spanish incursions and provide military counsel and encouraging resistance; he quite possibly was killed in a later battle.
First attempted conquest (1527–28)
The richer lands of Mexico engaged the main attention of the Conquistadors for some years, then in 1526 Francisco de Montejo (a veteran of the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions) successfully petitioned the King of Spain for the right to conquer Yucatán. He arrived in eastern Yucatán in 1527 and at first was greeted peaceably, and most local chiefs agreed with his demand that they swear loyalty to the King of Spain, for they had heard news of the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs. However, as the Spanish advanced they found towns already deserted when they reached them, and the Spanish were first harried as they traveled and then openly attacked. The Spanish set up a small fort on the coast at Xamanha in 1528, but had no further success in subduing the country. Montejo went to Mexico to gather a larger army.
Second attempted conquest (1531–35)
Montejo returned in 1531 with a force that conquered the Maya port city of Campeche. While he set up a fortress at Campeche, he sent his son Francisco Montejo The Younger inland with an army. The leaders of some Maya states pledged that they would be his allies. He continued on to Chichen Itza, which he declared his Royal capital of Spanish Yucatán, but after a few months the locals rose up against him, the Spaniards were constantly attacked, and the Spanish force fled to Honduras. It was rumored that Gonzalo Guerrero, the Spaniard shipwrecked in 1511 who chose to stay in Yucatán, was among those directing Maya resistance to the Spanish crown. Meanwhile the elder Montejo was frequently besieged in his fort in Campeche, and many of his soldiers were tired of a long fight with little to show for it, and stated that they wished to find easier conquests elsewhere. In 1535, Montejo withdrew his forces to Veracruz, leaving the Yucatán once again completely in the control of the Maya.
Final conquests (1540–46)
Montejo the elder, who was now in his late 60s, turned his royal rights in Yucatán over to his son, Francisco Montejo the Younger. The younger Montejo invaded Yucatán with a large force in 1540. In 1542, he set up his capital in the Maya city of T'ho, which he renamed Mérida. The lord of the Tutal Xiu of Maní converted to Christianity. The Xiu dominated most of Western Yucatán and became valuable allies of the Spanish, greatly assisting in the conquest of the rest of the peninsula. A number of Maya states at first pledged loyalty to Spain, but revolted after feeling the heavy hand of Spanish rule. Fighting and revolts continued for years. When the Spanish and Xiu defeated an army of the combined forces of the states of Eastern Yucatán in 1546, the conquest was officially complete; however, periodic revolts, which would be violently put down by Spanish troops and Indian auxiliaries, continued throughout the Spanish colonial era.
The Itza of Petén
The Postclassic Itza Maya of the Petén Basin region should be mentioned; while that area is now part of Guatemala, in colonial times it was part of the land under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Yucatán. The Itza capital was in Tayasal, an island city in lake Petén Itza. The Itza land was separated from Spanish Yucatán to the north and Spanish Guatemala to the south by thick jungles with little population. It had been visited by Cortés on his march to Honduras in 1525, when the lords of the Itza pledged loyalty to Spain, but was thereafter neglected by Spanish authorities. In 1618 two Franciscan friars were sent from Mérida to teach Christianity to the Itza. They arrived in Tayasal to find the people uninfluenced by European ways and still worshipping the traditional Mesoamerican gods. While the Itza king received them politely, they made no progress in converting the people to Christianity. In 1622, the Governor of Yucatán sent a force of 20 Spaniards and 140 Christian Indian allies to march on Tayasal, but the Itza quickly killed them. A second force on their way to the Petén in 1624 was ambushed by the Itza and met a similar fate. The Governor of Yucatán decided his energies were best spent elsewhere, and the Itza continued in independence.
In 1695, three Franciscans headed to Tayasal accompanied by four Christian Maya singers. They were well received, and a number of the Itza consented to be baptized. The Itza King, however, refused to convert to Christianity or pledge loyalty to Spain; he said a time would come when this would be the proper thing to do but that time had not arrived. A force of 60 Spanish soldiers and Maya allies were sent to the Petén the following year, but were beaten back by fierce Itza attacks. The command in Merida decided that a major force was needed, and in 1697 sent out a force of 235 Spanish soldiers and tens of thousands of Xiu Mayas. Along with artillery and a large supply train of mules and men to cut a path through the jungle. They set up a fort on the shore of Lake Petén Itza across from Tayasal, and reconstructed a small warship on the lake which had been brought with them in pieces. On March 13, 1697, this force succeeded in conquering the Itza capital of Tayasal. The Spanish burned the Itza library of books "containing lies of the devil", and reported later that the city had so many idols that with almost the entire army set at work, it took from nine in the morning until half past five in the evening to break them all. Mesoamerica was not to see another independent native state for over a hundred years.
See also
Yucatán
Maya civilization
Hernan Cortes
Spanish Conquest of Mexico
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Conquistador
[edit]Notes
^ See The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán (1526-46) (1999).
^ See Coe (1987, pp.153 et. seq.) for discussion and description of Maya political structures.
^ At the time of Spanish arrival, many of the Maya states of northern and western Yucatán were ruled by prestigious dynasties, such as the Cocom and Xiu. Their control had been established in the wake of the 15th-century breakup of the Mayapan polity, which had previously exerted extensive control over much of the region. Once the Spanish succeeded in gaining an alliance of sorts with the ruling Xiu family at Maní, a number of other states followed suit in acquiescing to Spanish rule, which greatly assisted the Spanish cause. Other competing Maya families and states continued with their resistance, however. See The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán (1526-46) (1999), Coe (1987), and also later in this text.
^ The account of the shipwreck and subsequent events follows that in Bernal Díaz's Verdadera Historia de la Conquista de Nueva España ( The Conquest of New Spain ), pp.59–66. Other 16th-century chroniclers differ in many of the details given by Díaz, such as the number aboard, how many survived to reach the shore, and their ultimate fate. Compare works by Cervantes, Gómara, and Martyr. However, all agree that ultimately two survived.
^ The shoals are named as Los Alacranes ("the scorpions") by Bernal Díaz and Cervantes de Salazar, with Cervantes also calling them Las Viboras ("the vipers"). See Ch. XXII of Crónica de la Nueva España, and also The Valdivia Shipwreck (1511), which follows Cervantes.
^ The landing place is around the "Rio Hondo" or possibly Cozumel or a little further to the south. See The Valdivia Shipwreck (1511) (1999).
^ Bernal Díaz uses the term Cacique, a word deriving from Caribbean languages such as Taíno and used by the Spanish generally for tribal chieftains; he also gives the word Calachiones as the local title. See The Conquest of New Spain, p.65.
^ The numbers for Grijalva's expedition are as given by Bernal Díaz, who participated in the voyage. See Díaz del Castillo (1963, p.27).
^ Guerrero is reported by Bernal Díaz to have responded, "Brother Aguilar, I am married and have three children, and they look on me as a Cacique here, and a captain in time of war....But my face is tattooed and my ears are pierced. What would the Spaniards say if they saw me like this? And look how handsome these children of mine are!" (p.60). However, other 16th-century sources say that Aguilar did not actually talk to Guerrero in person, but merely sent him a message (Gómara's version) or was unable to communicate with him at all (Cortés, de Landa), since if Guerrero was indeed near Chetumal that was some 400km from Cozumel. The quote attributed to Guerrero may well be a dramatic invention of Díaz's. See discussion in Romero (1992, pp.7—10).
^ Later in the voyage a young woman, La Malinche, would be given to Cortés as a slave by the Chontal Maya inhabitants of the Tabasco coast. La Malinche spoke Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs and a regional lingua franca, as well as Chontal Maya, which was also understood by Aguilar. Cortés would be able to use the two of them to communicate with the central Mexican peoples and the Aztec court. See The Conquest of New Spain, pp.85–87.
[edit]References
Cervantes de Salazar, Francisco (n.d.) [ca. 1560]. Crónica de la Nueva España. readme.it. Retrieved 2006-07-26. (Spanish)
Coe, Michael D. (1987). The Maya (4th edition (revised) ed.). London; New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27455-X. OCLC 15895415.
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1963) [1632]. The Conquest of New Spain. Penguin Classics. J. M. Cohen (trans.) (6th printing (1973) ed.). Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044123-9. OCLC 162351797.
Romero, Rolando J. (1992) (pdf). Texts, Pre-Texts, Con-Texts: Gonzalo Guerrero in the Chronicles of Indies. Retrieved 2006-07-26.
Rugeley, Terry L. (1996). Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77078-2.
"The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán (1526-46)". Athena Review 2 (1). 1999. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
"The Valdivia Shipwreck (1511)". Athena Review 2 (1). 1999. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
Categories: Spanish conquests in the Americas | History of Mesoamerica | 1546 in Mexico | Conflicts in 1546 | Yucatán
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of the series on
Spanish colonization of the Americas
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities, particularly in the northern and central Yucatán Peninsula but also involving the Maya polities of the Guatemalan highlands region. This episode in the conquest and colonization of the Americas began in the early 16th century, but would prove to be a more difficult and lengthier exercise in subjugation than the equivalent campaigns against the Aztec and Inca Empires. It would take some 170 years and the help of the Xiu Maya before the last recognized Maya stronghold fell, that of the Itza capital of Tayasal on Lake Petén Itzá, in 1697. However, except for the Petén region and the Guatemalan highlands, Spanish control over Yucatán itself was effectively in place by 1546.[1]
Unlike the campaigns against the Aztec and Inca states, the Maya had no single political center whose overthrow would hasten the end of collective resistance by the indigenous peoples.[2] Instead, the Maya were organized into a number of independent states, which the conquistador forces needed to subdue almost one by one, and many of these fiercely resisted the Spanish incursions.[3]
Particularly in the early stages, a prime motivating factor for the conquistadores was their interest in seizing great quantities of precious metals, such as gold and silver. Since the Maya lands were poor in these resources, they held comparatively little initial interest for the Spanish, who were attracted instead to central Mexico and Peru by promising reports of the greater rewards on offer there. However, with the prospects of new land grants and the acquisition of labour forces, it was not long until Spanish intentions turned to the Maya region, with the first concerted efforts to establish a presence commencing from the 1520s.
After Spanish dominion over the region was finally established, the Maya peoples themselves remained restive against Spanish rule, both under the colonial phase of New Spain and then under the newly-independent Mexican state. Maya discontent in Yucatán would later erupt into open revolt during the latter half of the 19th century, in the Caste War of Yucatán. The major portion of this conflict lasted over fifty years, during which much of the southeastern portion of the Peninsula was an effectively independent Maya state, Chan Santa Cruz. Complete suppression of the revolt was difficult to obtain, and skirmishes continued up into the 1930s (Rugeley 1996).
Maya civilization
Peoples · Languages · Society
Religion · Mythology · Human sacrifice
Architecture · Calendar
Textiles · Trade
Pre-Columbian Music · Writing
History
Classic Maya collapse
Spanish conquest of Yucatán
v • d • e
Contents
1 First encounters (1511)
2 Early expeditions (1517–19)
3 First attempted conquest (1527–28)
4 Second attempted conquest (1531–35)
5 Final conquests (1540–46)
6 The Itza of Petén
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
[edit]First encounters (1511)
The first known Spanish landing[4] on the Yucatán Peninsula was a product of misfortune, when in 1511 a small vessel bound for the island of Santo Domingo from Darién, Panama ran aground on some shoals in the Caribbean Sea, south of the island of Jamaica.[5] The ship's complement of fifteen men and two women set off in the ship's boat in an attempt to reach Cuba or one of the other colonies. However, the prevailing currents forced them westwards until, after approximately two weeks of drifting, they reached the eastern shoreline of the Peninsula, possibly in present-day Belize.[6] Captured by the local Maya, they were divided up among several of the chieftains[7] as slaves and a number were sacrificed and killed according to offeratory practices. Over the succeeding years their numbers dwindled further as others were lost to disease or exhaustion, until only two were left– Gerónimo de Aguilar who had escaped his former captor and found refuge with another Maya ruler, and Gonzalo Guerrero who had won some prestige among the Maya for his bravery and had now the standing of a ranking warrior and noble. These two would later have notable, but very different, roles to play in future conflicts between the Spanish and the Mesoamerican peoples– Aguilar would become Cortés's translator and advisor, with Guerrero instead electing to remain with the Maya and served as a tactician and warrior fighting with them against the Spanish.
These Spanish castaways had unknowingly brought with them an epidemic disease to the region, smallpox, which would kill many people over the next few years.
Early expeditions (1517–19)
The next contact was not until 1517 when Francisco Hernández de Córdoba sailed out from Cuba in search of slaves to replace the native Cubans who had been dying off in great numbers. The Spaniards were surprised to see stone cities along the coast of Yucatán. Córdoba landed at several towns; some greeted the Spanish with friendship and offered to trade goods with them (the Spaniards acquired a few pieces of gold ornaments this way), while other towns greeted him with hostility and shot arrows when the Spanish approached close to shore. The expedition returned to Cuba to report on the discovery of this new land. Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, ordered an expedition sent out with four ships and some 240 men[8] led by his nephew, Juan de Grijalva. The Grijalva expedition had similar mixed experiences with the native Maya as it sailed along the coasts of Yucatán for months. He was disappointed at gathering very little gold, but came back to Cuba with a tale that a rich empire was further to the west.
This prompted the Hernán Cortés expedition in 1519. Cortés spent some time at the island of Cozumel, tried with mixed results to convert the locals to Christianity, and heard stories of other bearded white men living in the area. He sent messengers to these reported castilianos, who turned out to be the survivors of the 1511 shipwreck, Aguilar and Guerrero. Aguilar petitioned his Maya chieftain to be allowed leave to join with his former countrymen, and he was released and made his way to Cortés's ships. According to Bernal Díaz, Aguilar relayed that before coming he had unsuccessfully attempted to convince Guerrero to leave as well. Guerrero declined on the basis that he was by now well-assimilated with the Maya culture, had a Maya wife and three children, and he was looked upon as a figure of rank within the Maya settlement of Chetumal where he lived.[9]
Aguilar, now quite fluent in Yucatec Maya as well as some other indigenous languages, would prove to be a valuable asset for Cortés as a translator, a skill of particular significance to the later conquest of the Aztec Empire which would be the end result of Cortés's expedition.[10]
Although Guerrero's later fate is somewhat uncertain, it appears that for some years he continued to fight alongside the Maya forces against Spanish incursions and provide military counsel and encouraging resistance; he quite possibly was killed in a later battle.
First attempted conquest (1527–28)
The richer lands of Mexico engaged the main attention of the Conquistadors for some years, then in 1526 Francisco de Montejo (a veteran of the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions) successfully petitioned the King of Spain for the right to conquer Yucatán. He arrived in eastern Yucatán in 1527 and at first was greeted peaceably, and most local chiefs agreed with his demand that they swear loyalty to the King of Spain, for they had heard news of the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs. However, as the Spanish advanced they found towns already deserted when they reached them, and the Spanish were first harried as they traveled and then openly attacked. The Spanish set up a small fort on the coast at Xamanha in 1528, but had no further success in subduing the country. Montejo went to Mexico to gather a larger army.
Second attempted conquest (1531–35)
Montejo returned in 1531 with a force that conquered the Maya port city of Campeche. While he set up a fortress at Campeche, he sent his son Francisco Montejo The Younger inland with an army. The leaders of some Maya states pledged that they would be his allies. He continued on to Chichen Itza, which he declared his Royal capital of Spanish Yucatán, but after a few months the locals rose up against him, the Spaniards were constantly attacked, and the Spanish force fled to Honduras. It was rumored that Gonzalo Guerrero, the Spaniard shipwrecked in 1511 who chose to stay in Yucatán, was among those directing Maya resistance to the Spanish crown. Meanwhile the elder Montejo was frequently besieged in his fort in Campeche, and many of his soldiers were tired of a long fight with little to show for it, and stated that they wished to find easier conquests elsewhere. In 1535, Montejo withdrew his forces to Veracruz, leaving the Yucatán once again completely in the control of the Maya.
Final conquests (1540–46)
Montejo the elder, who was now in his late 60s, turned his royal rights in Yucatán over to his son, Francisco Montejo the Younger. The younger Montejo invaded Yucatán with a large force in 1540. In 1542, he set up his capital in the Maya city of T'ho, which he renamed Mérida. The lord of the Tutal Xiu of Maní converted to Christianity. The Xiu dominated most of Western Yucatán and became valuable allies of the Spanish, greatly assisting in the conquest of the rest of the peninsula. A number of Maya states at first pledged loyalty to Spain, but revolted after feeling the heavy hand of Spanish rule. Fighting and revolts continued for years. When the Spanish and Xiu defeated an army of the combined forces of the states of Eastern Yucatán in 1546, the conquest was officially complete; however, periodic revolts, which would be violently put down by Spanish troops and Indian auxiliaries, continued throughout the Spanish colonial era.
The Itza of Petén
The Postclassic Itza Maya of the Petén Basin region should be mentioned; while that area is now part of Guatemala, in colonial times it was part of the land under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Yucatán. The Itza capital was in Tayasal, an island city in lake Petén Itza. The Itza land was separated from Spanish Yucatán to the north and Spanish Guatemala to the south by thick jungles with little population. It had been visited by Cortés on his march to Honduras in 1525, when the lords of the Itza pledged loyalty to Spain, but was thereafter neglected by Spanish authorities. In 1618 two Franciscan friars were sent from Mérida to teach Christianity to the Itza. They arrived in Tayasal to find the people uninfluenced by European ways and still worshipping the traditional Mesoamerican gods. While the Itza king received them politely, they made no progress in converting the people to Christianity. In 1622, the Governor of Yucatán sent a force of 20 Spaniards and 140 Christian Indian allies to march on Tayasal, but the Itza quickly killed them. A second force on their way to the Petén in 1624 was ambushed by the Itza and met a similar fate. The Governor of Yucatán decided his energies were best spent elsewhere, and the Itza continued in independence.
In 1695, three Franciscans headed to Tayasal accompanied by four Christian Maya singers. They were well received, and a number of the Itza consented to be baptized. The Itza King, however, refused to convert to Christianity or pledge loyalty to Spain; he said a time would come when this would be the proper thing to do but that time had not arrived. A force of 60 Spanish soldiers and Maya allies were sent to the Petén the following year, but were beaten back by fierce Itza attacks. The command in Merida decided that a major force was needed, and in 1697 sent out a force of 235 Spanish soldiers and tens of thousands of Xiu Mayas. Along with artillery and a large supply train of mules and men to cut a path through the jungle. They set up a fort on the shore of Lake Petén Itza across from Tayasal, and reconstructed a small warship on the lake which had been brought with them in pieces. On March 13, 1697, this force succeeded in conquering the Itza capital of Tayasal. The Spanish burned the Itza library of books "containing lies of the devil", and reported later that the city had so many idols that with almost the entire army set at work, it took from nine in the morning until half past five in the evening to break them all. Mesoamerica was not to see another independent native state for over a hundred years.
See also
Yucatán
Maya civilization
Hernan Cortes
Spanish Conquest of Mexico
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Conquistador
[edit]Notes
^ See The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán (1526-46) (1999).
^ See Coe (1987, pp.153 et. seq.) for discussion and description of Maya political structures.
^ At the time of Spanish arrival, many of the Maya states of northern and western Yucatán were ruled by prestigious dynasties, such as the Cocom and Xiu. Their control had been established in the wake of the 15th-century breakup of the Mayapan polity, which had previously exerted extensive control over much of the region. Once the Spanish succeeded in gaining an alliance of sorts with the ruling Xiu family at Maní, a number of other states followed suit in acquiescing to Spanish rule, which greatly assisted the Spanish cause. Other competing Maya families and states continued with their resistance, however. See The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán (1526-46) (1999), Coe (1987), and also later in this text.
^ The account of the shipwreck and subsequent events follows that in Bernal Díaz's Verdadera Historia de la Conquista de Nueva España ( The Conquest of New Spain ), pp.59–66. Other 16th-century chroniclers differ in many of the details given by Díaz, such as the number aboard, how many survived to reach the shore, and their ultimate fate. Compare works by Cervantes, Gómara, and Martyr. However, all agree that ultimately two survived.
^ The shoals are named as Los Alacranes ("the scorpions") by Bernal Díaz and Cervantes de Salazar, with Cervantes also calling them Las Viboras ("the vipers"). See Ch. XXII of Crónica de la Nueva España, and also The Valdivia Shipwreck (1511), which follows Cervantes.
^ The landing place is around the "Rio Hondo" or possibly Cozumel or a little further to the south. See The Valdivia Shipwreck (1511) (1999).
^ Bernal Díaz uses the term Cacique, a word deriving from Caribbean languages such as Taíno and used by the Spanish generally for tribal chieftains; he also gives the word Calachiones as the local title. See The Conquest of New Spain, p.65.
^ The numbers for Grijalva's expedition are as given by Bernal Díaz, who participated in the voyage. See Díaz del Castillo (1963, p.27).
^ Guerrero is reported by Bernal Díaz to have responded, "Brother Aguilar, I am married and have three children, and they look on me as a Cacique here, and a captain in time of war....But my face is tattooed and my ears are pierced. What would the Spaniards say if they saw me like this? And look how handsome these children of mine are!" (p.60). However, other 16th-century sources say that Aguilar did not actually talk to Guerrero in person, but merely sent him a message (Gómara's version) or was unable to communicate with him at all (Cortés, de Landa), since if Guerrero was indeed near Chetumal that was some 400km from Cozumel. The quote attributed to Guerrero may well be a dramatic invention of Díaz's. See discussion in Romero (1992, pp.7—10).
^ Later in the voyage a young woman, La Malinche, would be given to Cortés as a slave by the Chontal Maya inhabitants of the Tabasco coast. La Malinche spoke Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs and a regional lingua franca, as well as Chontal Maya, which was also understood by Aguilar. Cortés would be able to use the two of them to communicate with the central Mexican peoples and the Aztec court. See The Conquest of New Spain, pp.85–87.
[edit]References
Cervantes de Salazar, Francisco (n.d.) [ca. 1560]. Crónica de la Nueva España. readme.it. Retrieved 2006-07-26. (Spanish)
Coe, Michael D. (1987). The Maya (4th edition (revised) ed.). London; New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27455-X. OCLC 15895415.
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1963) [1632]. The Conquest of New Spain. Penguin Classics. J. M. Cohen (trans.) (6th printing (1973) ed.). Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044123-9. OCLC 162351797.
Romero, Rolando J. (1992) (pdf). Texts, Pre-Texts, Con-Texts: Gonzalo Guerrero in the Chronicles of Indies. Retrieved 2006-07-26.
Rugeley, Terry L. (1996). Yucatan's Maya Peasantry and the Origins of the Caste War. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77078-2.
"The Spanish Conquest of Yucatán (1526-46)". Athena Review 2 (1). 1999. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
"The Valdivia Shipwreck (1511)". Athena Review 2 (1). 1999. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
Categories: Spanish conquests in the Americas | History of Mesoamerica | 1546 in Mexico | Conflicts in 1546 | Yucatán
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Thursday, December 10, 2009
Mayan Civilization Time Line
The Mayan Civilization Time Line
by Luis Dumois
Based on the 'Mystery of the Maya'
OVERVIEW
B.C.
1000-1000
Olmec
1800-900 Early Preclassic Maya
900-300 Middle Preclassic Maya
300 B.C. -
A.D. 250 Late Preclassic Maya
A.D.
250-600
Early Classic Maya
600-900 Late Classic Maya
900-1500 Post Classic Maya
1521-1821 Colonial period
1821- today Independent Mexico
DETAILED TIME-LINE
B.C.
11,000
The first hunter-gatherers settle in the Maya highlands and lowlands.
3114-3113 The creation of the world takes place, according to the Maya Long Count calendar.
2000 The rise of the Olmec civilization, from which many aspects of Maya culture are derived. Village farming becomes established throughout Maya regions.
700 Writing is developed in Mesoamérica.
400 The earliest known solar calendars carved in stone are in use among the Maya.
300 The Maya adopt the idea of a hierarchical society ruled by nobles and kings.
100 The city of Teotihuacán is founded and for centuries is the cultural, religious and trading centre of Mesoamérica.
A.D.
100
The decline of the Olmecs.
400 The Maya highlands fall under the domination of Teotihuacán, and the disintegration of Maya culture and language begins in some parts of the highlands.
500 Tikal becomes the first great Maya city, as citizens from Teotihuacán make their way there, introducing new ideas involving weaponry, captives, ritual practices and human sacrifice.
600 An unknown event destroys the civilization at Teotihuacán, along with the empire it supported. Tikal becomes the largest city-state in Mesoamérica.
683 The Emperor Pacal dies at the age of 80 and is buried in the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque.
751 Long-standing Maya alliances begin to break down. Trade between Maya city-states declines, and inter-state conflict increases.
869 Construction ceases in Tikal, marking the beginning of the city's decline.
899 Tikal is abandoned.
900 The Classic Period of Maya history ends, with the collapse of the southern lowland cities. Maya cities in the northern Yucatán continue to thrive. Development of the Puuc style in Uxmal, Kabah and Labná.
1000 Northern Maya cities begin to be abandoned.
1224 The city of Chichén Itzá is abandoned by the Toltecs. The Itzá people settle in the deserted area.
1244 The Itzá abandon Chichén Itzá for reasons unknown.
1263 The Itzá begin building the city of Mayapán.
1283 Mayapán becomes the capital of Yucatán, as the League of Mayapán rules the country.
1441 There is a rebellion within Mayapán and the city is abandoned by 1461. After this, political union is lost in Yucatán. Sixteen rival groups compete among themselves to rule over the others.
1517 The Spanish first arrive on the shores of Yucatán under Hernández de Córdoba, who later dies of wounds received in battle against the Maya. The arrival of the Spanish ushers in Old World diseases unknown among the Maya, including smallpox, influenza and measles. Within a century, 90 per cent of Mesoamérica's native populations will be killed off.
1519 Hernán Cortés begins exploring Yucatán.
1524 Cortés meets the Itzá people, the last of the Maya to remain unconquered by the Spanish.
1528 The Spanish under Francisco de Montejo begin their conquest of the northern Maya. The Maya fight back with surprising vigour, keeping the Spanish at bay for several years.
1541 The Spanish are finally able to subdue the Maya and put an end to Maya resistance. Revolt continues, however, to plague the Spaniards off and on for the rest of the century.
1542 The Spanish establish a capital city at Mérida in Yucatán.
1695 The ruins of Tikal are discovered by chance by the Spanish priest Father Andrés de Avedaño and his companions, who had become lost in the Petén jungle.
1697 The city of Tayasal, capital of the Itzá in the Petén, is taken by the Spanish. Thus the last Maya independent political entity is subdued to the Spanish Crown.
1712 The Maya of the Chiapas highlands rise against the Mexican government. They will continue to do so off and on until today.
1724 The Spanish Crown abolishes the system of encomienda, which had given Spanish land owners the right to forced Indian labour.
1761 The Maya of Yucatán, led by Jacinto Canek, rise against the government.
1821 Mexico becomes independent from Spain.
1839 American diplomat and amateur archaeologist John Lloyd Stephens and English artist Frederick Catherwood begin a series of explorations into Maya regions, revealing the full splendour of classical Maya civilization to the world for the first time.
1847 The Yucatán Maya rise up against the Mexican government, rebelling against the miserable conditions and cruelty they have suffered at the hands of the whites. The rebellion is so successful that the Maya almost manage to take over the entire peninsula in what has become known as the War of the Castes.
1850 A miraculous "talking cross" in a village in central Quintana Roo predicts a holy war against the whites. Bolstered by arms received from the British in Belize, the Maya form into quasi-military companies inspired by messianic zeal. The fighting continues until 1901, when English in Belize betray the followers of the talking cross, the cruzobs, and retire their support.
1860 The Yucatán Maya rebel again.
1864 Workmen digging a canal on the Caribbean coast of Guatemala discover a jade plaque inscribed with a date of A.D. 320 (8.14.3.1.12 in the Maya Long Count.) The so called Plaque of Leyden, thought to be manufactured in Tikal, becomes one of the oldest known objects dated with the Maya calendar system.
1880 A new tide of government intervention in Maya life begins as governments attempt to force the Maya to become labourers on cash-crop plantations. This destroys many aspects of Maya cultural traditions and agricultural methods preserved over 4,000 years. Towns which had been protected for the Maya soon become a haven for mixed-race ladinos who prey economically on the indigenous Maya and usurp all positions of social and economic power.
1901 The War of the Castes comes to an end, although there are armed cruzobs in the jungle until at least 1935.
1910 The Mexican Revolution begins.
1952 The Priest-king Pacal's tomb at Palenque is discovered and excavated by Mexican archaeologist Alberto Ruz, marking the first time a tomb has been found inside a Maya pyramid. Prior to this, Maya pyramids were believed to be temples with a purely religious or ceremonial purpose.
1962 Maya hieroglyphic signs are first catalogued. Uncontrolled looting of Maya tombs and other sites begins around this time in the southern lowlands, continuing until well into the 1970s.
1992 A Quiché Maya woman from Guatemala named Rigoberta Menchú, who has lost most of her family to the death squads and is known for speaking out against the extermination of the Maya, wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
1994 Chiapas Maya, Tzeltal and Tzotzil in their majority, rise against the Mexican government, taking the city of San Cristóbal de las Casas.
by Luis Dumois
Based on the 'Mystery of the Maya'
OVERVIEW
B.C.
1000-1000
Olmec
1800-900 Early Preclassic Maya
900-300 Middle Preclassic Maya
300 B.C. -
A.D. 250 Late Preclassic Maya
A.D.
250-600
Early Classic Maya
600-900 Late Classic Maya
900-1500 Post Classic Maya
1521-1821 Colonial period
1821- today Independent Mexico
DETAILED TIME-LINE
B.C.
11,000
The first hunter-gatherers settle in the Maya highlands and lowlands.
3114-3113 The creation of the world takes place, according to the Maya Long Count calendar.
2000 The rise of the Olmec civilization, from which many aspects of Maya culture are derived. Village farming becomes established throughout Maya regions.
700 Writing is developed in Mesoamérica.
400 The earliest known solar calendars carved in stone are in use among the Maya.
300 The Maya adopt the idea of a hierarchical society ruled by nobles and kings.
100 The city of Teotihuacán is founded and for centuries is the cultural, religious and trading centre of Mesoamérica.
A.D.
100
The decline of the Olmecs.
400 The Maya highlands fall under the domination of Teotihuacán, and the disintegration of Maya culture and language begins in some parts of the highlands.
500 Tikal becomes the first great Maya city, as citizens from Teotihuacán make their way there, introducing new ideas involving weaponry, captives, ritual practices and human sacrifice.
600 An unknown event destroys the civilization at Teotihuacán, along with the empire it supported. Tikal becomes the largest city-state in Mesoamérica.
683 The Emperor Pacal dies at the age of 80 and is buried in the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque.
751 Long-standing Maya alliances begin to break down. Trade between Maya city-states declines, and inter-state conflict increases.
869 Construction ceases in Tikal, marking the beginning of the city's decline.
899 Tikal is abandoned.
900 The Classic Period of Maya history ends, with the collapse of the southern lowland cities. Maya cities in the northern Yucatán continue to thrive. Development of the Puuc style in Uxmal, Kabah and Labná.
1000 Northern Maya cities begin to be abandoned.
1224 The city of Chichén Itzá is abandoned by the Toltecs. The Itzá people settle in the deserted area.
1244 The Itzá abandon Chichén Itzá for reasons unknown.
1263 The Itzá begin building the city of Mayapán.
1283 Mayapán becomes the capital of Yucatán, as the League of Mayapán rules the country.
1441 There is a rebellion within Mayapán and the city is abandoned by 1461. After this, political union is lost in Yucatán. Sixteen rival groups compete among themselves to rule over the others.
1517 The Spanish first arrive on the shores of Yucatán under Hernández de Córdoba, who later dies of wounds received in battle against the Maya. The arrival of the Spanish ushers in Old World diseases unknown among the Maya, including smallpox, influenza and measles. Within a century, 90 per cent of Mesoamérica's native populations will be killed off.
1519 Hernán Cortés begins exploring Yucatán.
1524 Cortés meets the Itzá people, the last of the Maya to remain unconquered by the Spanish.
1528 The Spanish under Francisco de Montejo begin their conquest of the northern Maya. The Maya fight back with surprising vigour, keeping the Spanish at bay for several years.
1541 The Spanish are finally able to subdue the Maya and put an end to Maya resistance. Revolt continues, however, to plague the Spaniards off and on for the rest of the century.
1542 The Spanish establish a capital city at Mérida in Yucatán.
1695 The ruins of Tikal are discovered by chance by the Spanish priest Father Andrés de Avedaño and his companions, who had become lost in the Petén jungle.
1697 The city of Tayasal, capital of the Itzá in the Petén, is taken by the Spanish. Thus the last Maya independent political entity is subdued to the Spanish Crown.
1712 The Maya of the Chiapas highlands rise against the Mexican government. They will continue to do so off and on until today.
1724 The Spanish Crown abolishes the system of encomienda, which had given Spanish land owners the right to forced Indian labour.
1761 The Maya of Yucatán, led by Jacinto Canek, rise against the government.
1821 Mexico becomes independent from Spain.
1839 American diplomat and amateur archaeologist John Lloyd Stephens and English artist Frederick Catherwood begin a series of explorations into Maya regions, revealing the full splendour of classical Maya civilization to the world for the first time.
1847 The Yucatán Maya rise up against the Mexican government, rebelling against the miserable conditions and cruelty they have suffered at the hands of the whites. The rebellion is so successful that the Maya almost manage to take over the entire peninsula in what has become known as the War of the Castes.
1850 A miraculous "talking cross" in a village in central Quintana Roo predicts a holy war against the whites. Bolstered by arms received from the British in Belize, the Maya form into quasi-military companies inspired by messianic zeal. The fighting continues until 1901, when English in Belize betray the followers of the talking cross, the cruzobs, and retire their support.
1860 The Yucatán Maya rebel again.
1864 Workmen digging a canal on the Caribbean coast of Guatemala discover a jade plaque inscribed with a date of A.D. 320 (8.14.3.1.12 in the Maya Long Count.) The so called Plaque of Leyden, thought to be manufactured in Tikal, becomes one of the oldest known objects dated with the Maya calendar system.
1880 A new tide of government intervention in Maya life begins as governments attempt to force the Maya to become labourers on cash-crop plantations. This destroys many aspects of Maya cultural traditions and agricultural methods preserved over 4,000 years. Towns which had been protected for the Maya soon become a haven for mixed-race ladinos who prey economically on the indigenous Maya and usurp all positions of social and economic power.
1901 The War of the Castes comes to an end, although there are armed cruzobs in the jungle until at least 1935.
1910 The Mexican Revolution begins.
1952 The Priest-king Pacal's tomb at Palenque is discovered and excavated by Mexican archaeologist Alberto Ruz, marking the first time a tomb has been found inside a Maya pyramid. Prior to this, Maya pyramids were believed to be temples with a purely religious or ceremonial purpose.
1962 Maya hieroglyphic signs are first catalogued. Uncontrolled looting of Maya tombs and other sites begins around this time in the southern lowlands, continuing until well into the 1970s.
1992 A Quiché Maya woman from Guatemala named Rigoberta Menchú, who has lost most of her family to the death squads and is known for speaking out against the extermination of the Maya, wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
1994 Chiapas Maya, Tzeltal and Tzotzil in their majority, rise against the Mexican government, taking the city of San Cristóbal de las Casas.
The Chicxulub Crater in Yucatán
Geologists and archaeologists searching in 1987 for limestone sinkholes (cenotes) used as water sources at ancient Mayan sites in northern Yucatán discovered the perimeter of the 200 km-wide Chicxulub impact crater that, some 65 million years ago, may have played a major role in the extinction of the dinosaurs. These giant reptiles flourished during the Mesozoic era (Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretacous geological periods) when much of the Earth's landmass was joined in supercontinents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland, and large portions of today's North American Atlantic coast were underwater.
During the 160 million years of the Mesozoic era several episodes of impact cratering are known. The idea of linking the dinosaurs' demise at the end of the Cretaceous era (135-65 myr) to a giant, catastrophic impact event which caused sudden cooling of the atmosphere and an increase in sulfur content gained widespread acceptance with the 1980 Nobel Prize-winning theory by Louis and Walter Alvarez. This focused on the marked increase of iridium and other rare earth elements found in stratigraphic layers at the geological division of the Cretaceous and Tertiary eras, called the K-T boundary. The fact that iridium is more abundant in comets and asteroids than on the Earth strongly suggested an extraterrestrial, intrusive source for these elements in the time frame of the K-T stratigraphic boundary.
The giant meteor causing the Chicxulub Crater in Yucatán, becoming better known through study of subsurface gravitational anomalies, is presently the best candidate for that source. This crater, variously estimated at 180-300 km in diameter, is one of the largest impact structures known on Earth, or other planets in the solar system such as Venus, where many craters have been studied. The center of the Yucatán crater has been located at latitude 21º30' N, longitude 89º50' W, near the village of Chicxulub on the Caribbean coast near Progresso. While there is general agreement on the chronology of the impact event some 65 myr ago, based on results of dating the isotopic decay of argon and potassium in the rocks, determining the size and outer perimeters of the crater have been more difficult, since visible outcrops of the impact on land are limited to secondary, erosional features including cenotes. These sinkholes or natural wells (Maya dz'onot) are 30-500 m in diameter .
Cenotes are among the most common features in the limestone topography of the Yucatán peninsula. Hundreds have been found across NW Yucatán with clusters around the perimeter of the ancient crater (figs.4,6). The gradual dissolving of upper limestone layers overlying broken-up rocks, or breccia, around the crater's original impact rim has resulted in the creation of a large number of cenotes. These cenotes later provided water sources in northern Yucatán between the Puuc hills and Chichén Itzá, used by ancient Maya towns and ceremonial centers. Other sites in the Puuc region such as Kabah and Sayil which lacked cenotes used man-made cisterns (chultuns) or reservoirs (aguadas). Chultuns are common at lowland Maya household sites in both Yucatán and the Peten of northern Guatemala.
The Yucatán peninsula is a low-lying limestone platform which arose out of shallow seas during the Pleistocene, 2 million years ago and later. The crater site is thus buried under Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene) carbonate sediments from 0.6 to 1.0 km thick, lying over Tertiary sandstones and volcanic rocks which, in turn, immediately overlie the impact site. The northern half of the now-buried crater today lies in shallow Caribbean waters of the Sea of Campeche .
Survey work related to oil exploration by Glen Penfield and Antonio Camargo in 1981 first identified concentric rings of gravitational anomalies around the northwest coast of Yucatán. Independently, fragments of melted glass and rock from the ancient impact have been found throughout the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, and as far as Wyoming. These glass fragments, or tectites, at the K-T boundary were used to support the original Alvarez theory and suggested a major impact around Yucatán even before the Chicxulub Crater was discovered. Besides the value of the Chicxulub impact to explain catastrophic events causing the end of the dinosaur era on earth, of equal importance is comparative data useful for planetary geology. According to recent views, when the huge meteor or asteroid fragment hit the carbonate platform of the Yucatán shelf, large amounts of sulfur and carbon were released. Grieve (1990) proposed that droplets of sulfuric acid blocked out the sun and poisoned the oceans, while carbon dioxide enhanced the greenhouse effect warming the earth. A partly similar effect is thought to have caused the thick, sulfur-laden atmosphere of Venus, whose surface shows many large impact craters.
Since initial discovery of the crater, a number of projects have converged to identify its size and nature. Examining the available gravity data, Hildebrand (1991) located two concentric rings which suggested an outer rim of 180 km, matching the ring of cenotes first mapped by Charles Duller in 1987 while searching satellite imagery for ancient Mayan water sources. In a more detailed survey, Sharpton (1993) found 4 concentric rings of Bouguer anomalies, indicating a 200 km-wide basin with inner rings 104 and 154 km in diameter, and a 300 km periphery. Hildebrand (1995), while mapping shallow structures in the crater, rather than the deeper underlying strata, showed six rings within his proposed 180 km diameter. He also noted that the cenotes along the rim are generally larger than those found elsewhere in the Yucatán peninsula.
[Fig.6: Gravity map of Chicxulub crater, showing outline of Yucatán coast. White dots are cenotes, often concentrated along the crater rim (after Hildebrand et al 1995).]
More recent research by Morgan et al. (1997) employed seismic reflection data from the offshore portion of the crater to obtain a clearer picture of the crater's shape and size. The transient crater, or hole from the initial impact (fig.3), appears to have been 85 km in diameter, caused by a 10-14 km meteor. The overall crater would have included three rings: a peak ring 80 km in diameter, a 130 km inner ring, and a 195 km outer ring. When newly formed, this structure would have resembled other multi-ringed craters, as on Venus, Mercury, Europa, or the Moon. Beads of altered green glass called tektites probably related to the formation of Chicxulub Crater have also been found in Belize 480 km from the crater (Ocampo and Pope 1998). Similar tektites, formed from the heat of the Chicxulub impact, are scattered as far afield as Haiti and north Mexico.
From such evidence we learn that Earth, like its neighboring planets Mars and Venus, is covered with ancient craters, usually much obscurred by weathering, vegetation, or water, yet detectable through gravitational, radar, seismic, and other remote sensing techniques. In Yucatán, these methods have been combined productively with on-the-ground surveys to identify remains of a buried colossus, responsible for the major change in lifeforms at the start of the Tertiary, and which much later provided a central focus of both ancient and modern Maya settlements.
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Geologists and archaeologists searching in 1987 for limestone sinkholes (cenotes) used as water sources at ancient Mayan sites in northern Yucatán discovered the perimeter of the 200 km-wide Chicxulub impact crater that, some 65 million years ago, may have played a major role in the extinction of the dinosaurs. These giant reptiles flourished during the Mesozoic era (Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretacous geological periods) when much of the Earth's landmass was joined in supercontinents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland, and large portions of today's North American Atlantic coast were underwater.
During the 160 million years of the Mesozoic era several episodes of impact cratering are known. The idea of linking the dinosaurs' demise at the end of the Cretaceous era (135-65 myr) to a giant, catastrophic impact event which caused sudden cooling of the atmosphere and an increase in sulfur content gained widespread acceptance with the 1980 Nobel Prize-winning theory by Louis and Walter Alvarez. This focused on the marked increase of iridium and other rare earth elements found in stratigraphic layers at the geological division of the Cretaceous and Tertiary eras, called the K-T boundary. The fact that iridium is more abundant in comets and asteroids than on the Earth strongly suggested an extraterrestrial, intrusive source for these elements in the time frame of the K-T stratigraphic boundary.
The giant meteor causing the Chicxulub Crater in Yucatán, becoming better known through study of subsurface gravitational anomalies, is presently the best candidate for that source. This crater, variously estimated at 180-300 km in diameter, is one of the largest impact structures known on Earth, or other planets in the solar system such as Venus, where many craters have been studied. The center of the Yucatán crater has been located at latitude 21º30' N, longitude 89º50' W, near the village of Chicxulub on the Caribbean coast near Progresso. While there is general agreement on the chronology of the impact event some 65 myr ago, based on results of dating the isotopic decay of argon and potassium in the rocks, determining the size and outer perimeters of the crater have been more difficult, since visible outcrops of the impact on land are limited to secondary, erosional features including cenotes. These sinkholes or natural wells (Maya dz'onot) are 30-500 m in diameter .
Cenotes are among the most common features in the limestone topography of the Yucatán peninsula. Hundreds have been found across NW Yucatán with clusters around the perimeter of the ancient crater (figs.4,6). The gradual dissolving of upper limestone layers overlying broken-up rocks, or breccia, around the crater's original impact rim has resulted in the creation of a large number of cenotes. These cenotes later provided water sources in northern Yucatán between the Puuc hills and Chichén Itzá, used by ancient Maya towns and ceremonial centers. Other sites in the Puuc region such as Kabah and Sayil which lacked cenotes used man-made cisterns (chultuns) or reservoirs (aguadas). Chultuns are common at lowland Maya household sites in both Yucatán and the Peten of northern Guatemala.
The Yucatán peninsula is a low-lying limestone platform which arose out of shallow seas during the Pleistocene, 2 million years ago and later. The crater site is thus buried under Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene) carbonate sediments from 0.6 to 1.0 km thick, lying over Tertiary sandstones and volcanic rocks which, in turn, immediately overlie the impact site. The northern half of the now-buried crater today lies in shallow Caribbean waters of the Sea of Campeche .
Survey work related to oil exploration by Glen Penfield and Antonio Camargo in 1981 first identified concentric rings of gravitational anomalies around the northwest coast of Yucatán. Independently, fragments of melted glass and rock from the ancient impact have been found throughout the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, and as far as Wyoming. These glass fragments, or tectites, at the K-T boundary were used to support the original Alvarez theory and suggested a major impact around Yucatán even before the Chicxulub Crater was discovered. Besides the value of the Chicxulub impact to explain catastrophic events causing the end of the dinosaur era on earth, of equal importance is comparative data useful for planetary geology. According to recent views, when the huge meteor or asteroid fragment hit the carbonate platform of the Yucatán shelf, large amounts of sulfur and carbon were released. Grieve (1990) proposed that droplets of sulfuric acid blocked out the sun and poisoned the oceans, while carbon dioxide enhanced the greenhouse effect warming the earth. A partly similar effect is thought to have caused the thick, sulfur-laden atmosphere of Venus, whose surface shows many large impact craters.
Since initial discovery of the crater, a number of projects have converged to identify its size and nature. Examining the available gravity data, Hildebrand (1991) located two concentric rings which suggested an outer rim of 180 km, matching the ring of cenotes first mapped by Charles Duller in 1987 while searching satellite imagery for ancient Mayan water sources. In a more detailed survey, Sharpton (1993) found 4 concentric rings of Bouguer anomalies, indicating a 200 km-wide basin with inner rings 104 and 154 km in diameter, and a 300 km periphery. Hildebrand (1995), while mapping shallow structures in the crater, rather than the deeper underlying strata, showed six rings within his proposed 180 km diameter. He also noted that the cenotes along the rim are generally larger than those found elsewhere in the Yucatán peninsula.
[Fig.6: Gravity map of Chicxulub crater, showing outline of Yucatán coast. White dots are cenotes, often concentrated along the crater rim (after Hildebrand et al 1995).]
More recent research by Morgan et al. (1997) employed seismic reflection data from the offshore portion of the crater to obtain a clearer picture of the crater's shape and size. The transient crater, or hole from the initial impact (fig.3), appears to have been 85 km in diameter, caused by a 10-14 km meteor. The overall crater would have included three rings: a peak ring 80 km in diameter, a 130 km inner ring, and a 195 km outer ring. When newly formed, this structure would have resembled other multi-ringed craters, as on Venus, Mercury, Europa, or the Moon. Beads of altered green glass called tektites probably related to the formation of Chicxulub Crater have also been found in Belize 480 km from the crater (Ocampo and Pope 1998). Similar tektites, formed from the heat of the Chicxulub impact, are scattered as far afield as Haiti and north Mexico.
From such evidence we learn that Earth, like its neighboring planets Mars and Venus, is covered with ancient craters, usually much obscurred by weathering, vegetation, or water, yet detectable through gravitational, radar, seismic, and other remote sensing techniques. In Yucatán, these methods have been combined productively with on-the-ground surveys to identify remains of a buried colossus, responsible for the major change in lifeforms at the start of the Tertiary, and which much later provided a central focus of both ancient and modern Maya settlements.
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